eCl@ss is a product classification and description standard for information exchange between customers and their suppliers.

eCl@ss is a de facto standard within the German energy industry, but competes with UNSPSC in the United States. In 2006 eCl@ss joined forces with ETIM, which is an important standard in the wholesale electrical industry. Mid February 2011 release 7.0 of eCl@ss was published introducing substantial increase of content and being harmonized with the industry standards ETIM and Prolist (process control and chemical industry).

eCl@ss is characterised by a 4-level hierarchical classification system. Each level adds a 2-token prefix to the eCl@ss-code, together forming an 8 character numeric code. In addition to the classification, eCl@ss provides for each class in the classification hierarchy a so-called application class, which is characterized by certain defined properties, which can be used to describe the classified item. The eCl@ss data model is based on ISO 13584-42.

eCl@ss content is aimed to be available in multiple languages, with English and German being the most complete versions:

Industrial products and services categorization standards

• eCl@ss
• ETIM
• UNSPSC
• eOTD
• RosettaNet

References

• Hepp, Martin; Leukel, Joerg; Schmitz, Volker (2007), “A quantitative analysis of product categorization standards: content, coverage, and maintenance of eCl@ss, UNSPSC, eOTD, and the RosettaNet Technical Dictionary”, Knowledge and Information Systems 13 (1): 77–114, doi:10.1007/s10115-006-0054-2, ISSN 0219-1377 

External links

• e-class Website
• eClass assignment tool
• online access to eCl@ss content including possibility to file change requests

Level 3 Communications is an American multinational telecommunications and Internet service provider company headquartered in Broomfield, Colorado.

It operates a Tier 1 network. The company provides core transport, IP, voice, video, and content delivery for medium-to-large Internet carriers in North America, Latin America, Europe, and selected cities in Asia. Level 3 is also the largest competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) and the 3rd largest provider of fiber optic internet access (based on coverage area) in the United States.

History

1985 to 2010

In 1985, Peter Kiewit Sons’ Inc created a subsidiary named Kiewit Diversified Group to manage the corporation’s business that was not related to construction. The division was spun off as a separate entity and changed its name to Level 3 Communications in 1998 to signify an increased focus on communication services. That same year saw it make an IPO on NASDAQ. It continued to build its telecommunications network after going public.

In 2003, the company acquired Genuity, and, between 2005 and 2007, it purchased several other companies including former rivals WilTel Communications, Broadwing Corporation, Looking Glass Networks, Progress Telecom, and Telcove (formerly Adelphia Business Solutions).

In 2004, Level 3 acquired ICG Communications’ wholesale dial-up business for $35 million. Then, in 2006, Level 3 purchased the rest of ICG Communications for $163 million, taking over ICG’s fiber network and nationwide Points of Presence (PoPs). It then focused on integrating those acquired companies through 2010.

2010 to present

On April 11, 2011, Level 3 announced a tender offer had been made to acquire fellow Tier 1 provider Global Crossing in an all-stock transaction. On August 5, 2011, Level 3’s purchase of Global Crossing was separately approved by shareholders of both companies. On October 4, 2011, the purchase was completed. On October 20, 2011, Level 3 Communications completed a reverse stock split and transferred its stock listing from NASDAQ to the New York Stock Exchange.

On May 14, 2012, Level 3 was selected by European content provider Voxility to provide more than 250 Gbit/s to Voxility’s three major datacenters in North America and Europe.

On May 7, 2012, the U.S. Department of Defense’s Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) contracted Level 3 to provide dedicated fiber-cable operations and maintenance support, and IP-based infrastructure under a ten-year, indefinite-delivery/indefinite-quantity contract with a maximum value of approximately $410.8 million.

On October 30, 2012, Level 3 was named as “Top Ethernet Services Provider” by Nemertes Research PilotHouse Awards.

On June 16, 2014, Level 3 agreed to buy TW Telecom, a provider of business Internet connections, for about $5.68 billion.

In July 2015, Level 3 acquired Black Lotus, a provider of protection services against distributed denial of service (DDoS).

Operations

Network

Level 3 Communications operates a large network of the Internet. This includes 46 states in the continental United States, South America, Western Europe, and select cities in Asia. It uses transatlantic cables, including Yellow/AC-2, on which it owned and operated two of the four fiber pairs after the 2001 Viatel bankruptcy. Level 3 Communications has also purchased 300 Gbit/s of capacity on the Apollo cable system.

It is the current owner of AS1 (following the acquisition of Genuity, that was the BBN Technologies Spin off for their Internet Service Provider assets, including this AS), but it operationally uses AS3356, which as of 2007 consistently has one of the highest ranked connectivity degrees on the Internet. It also operates the former Global Crossing network (AS3549) following the company acquisition in 2011.

The company runs a content delivery network which it acquired from Savvis in 2006. Level 3 Communications delivers Netflix and Apple Inc. music and video content over the Internet.

In 2006, Level 3 Communications partnered with Internet2, an academic network, and announced it would deploy a next generation nationwide research network.

Sales organization

Level 3 distributes and sells its services through a mix of six independent sales channels: large enterprise, wholesale, federal, content and media, midmarket, and indirect. All six sales channels report to the president of sales Andrew Crouch. The top performing Level 3 indirect sales agencies in 2010 include Intelisys, Microcorp, CDW/AVANT Communications, PlanetOne, Advantage Communications Group, Telarus, and Presidio.

Finance

On February 5, 2014, Level 3 reported total revenue of $1.602 billion for the fourth quarter 2013, compared to $1.614 billion for the fourth quarter 2012. For the full year 2013, total revenue was $6.313 billion, compared to $6.376 billion for the full year 2012. As of the release of the 4th Quarter and Full Year earnings, Internet market publication The Street was recommending a “Hold” for Level 3 stock.

Disputes

On December 8, 2010, the New America Foundation submitted a request to the Federal Communications Commission to investigate the ongoing dispute between Level 3 Communications and Comcast with regard to data trafficking agreements. The request called for an investigation of “whether and how last-mile providers might leverage their relationship with broadband consumers to act in an anticompetitive manner”, and how “last-mile providers can leverage their market power to harm their competitors in the market for Internet content”.

The request for investigation stems from the decision by Comcast to alter the peering agreement they had with Level 3 due to the increased volume of internet traffic due to the latter’s new agreement to be a primary backbone provider of Netflix on-line streaming content. Level 3 Communications agreed to pay a new fee but maintained the view that it goes against Federal Communications Commission regulations that prevent Internet Service Providers from “favoring certain types of traffic.”

Comcast’s acquisition of NBCUniversal was another contributing factor to the dispute. On December 8, 2010, in a letter to the FCC, the New America Foundation wrote to the FCC stating that, “Because this dispute arose shortly after Level 3 signed a deal with Netflix to transmit Netflix content, regulators should examine Comcast’s motives closely. Netflix competes directly with Comcast’s cable TV programming offerings. In fact, over the past two quarters, cable has lost an increasing number of subscribers, and a number of those consumers have substituted Netflix streaming video service for the cable service they have eliminated. It requires little imagination to view Comcast’s behavior as an attempt to raise the distribution costs for Netflix and thus force that competitor to pass these new expenses onto consumers in the form of higher prices.”

On December 16, 2010, Level 3 Communications CEO, James Q. Crowe, submitted a letter to the FCC regarding the ongoing dispute between his company and Comcast. In the letter he stated, “The question, quite simply, is whether Comcast and other residential broadband Internet service providers should be allowed to use their dominant control over access to their subscribers’ eyes and ears in order to coerce payments from broadband backbone and independent content providers.”

On December 17, 2010, Jeff Storey, President and COO of Level 3 Communications wrote a letter to Neil Smit, President of Comcast. In it he wrote, “Last night and today, in direct violation of our Non-disclosure agreement, Comcast disclosed the details of our discussions to the FCC, and publicly disclosed those discussions in a blog post written by John Schanz. This breach of our agreement is exacerbated by the fact that Comcast’s portrayal of our discussions is factually incorrect”.

In July 2013, Level 3 was accused of wiretapping large parts of data on the German Internet Exchange Point DE-CIX for the NSA, and a few months later, was accused of tapping connections between Google and Yahoo data centers.

References

External links

• Official website

The Village Voice is a free weekly 17″ by 11″ format newspaper and news and features website in New York City that features investigative articles, analysis of current affairs and culture, arts and music coverage, and events listings for New York City. It is also distributed throughout the United States on a pay basis.

It was the first of the urban tabloid-format newspapers that came to be known as alternative weeklies, and as such is the oldest and largest newspaper of its kind in the United States.

History

Early years

The Voice was launched by Ed Fancher, Dan Wolf, John Wilcock, and Norman Mailer on October 26, 1955 from a two-bedroom apartment in Greenwich Village, which was its initial coverage area, expanding to other parts of the city by the 1960s. In the 1960s the offices were located at Sheridan Square; then,from the 70’s through 1980, at 11th Street and University Place; and then Broadway and 13th Street. In 1991 they moved to Cooper Square in the East Village, and in 2013, to the Financial District.

The Voice has published groundbreaking investigations of New York City politics, as well as reporting on local and national politics, with arts, culture, music, dance, film, and theater reviews. It has received three Pulitzer Prizes, in 1981 (Teresa Carpenter), 1986 (Jules Feiffer) and 2000 (Mark Schoofs). Almost since its inception the paper has recognized alternative theater in New York through its Obie Awards. The paper’s “Pazz & Jop” music poll, started by Robert Christgau in the early 1970s, continues to this day and remains a highly influential survey of the nation’s music critics. In 1999, film critic J. Hoberman and film section editor Dennis Lim began a similar Village Voice Film Poll for the year’s movies. In 2001 the paper sponsored its first Siren Festival music festival, a free annual event every summer held at Coney Island. That event has since been moved to the lower tip of Manhattan and re-christened the “4Knots Music Festival,” a reference to the speed of the East River’s current.

The Voice has published many well-known writers, including Ezra Pound, Henry Miller, Barbara Garson, Katherine Anne Porter, staff writer and author M.S.Cone, James Baldwin, E.E. Cummings, Nat Hentoff, staff writer and author Ted Hoagland, William Bastone of thesmokinggun.com, Tom Stoppard, Lorraine Hansberry, Lester Bangs, Catholic activist and author Thomas E. Byers, Allen Ginsberg and Joshua Clover. Former editors have included Clay Felker and Tom Morgan.

Early columnists of the 1950s and 1960s included Jonas Mekas, who explored the underground film movement in his “Film Journal” column; Linda Solomon, who reviewed the Village club scene in the “Riffs” column; and Sam Julty, who wrote a popular column on car ownership and maintenance. John Wilcock wrote a column every week for the paper’s first ten years. Another regular from that period was the cartoonist Kin Platt, who did weekly theatrical caricatures. Other prominent regulars have included Peter Schjeldahl, Ellen Willis, Tom Carson, Wayne Barrett, and Richard Goldstein.

The newspaper has also been a host to promising underground cartoonists. In addition to mainstay Jules Feiffer, whose cartoon ran for decades in the paper until its cancellation in 1996, well-known cartoonists featured in the paper have included R. Crumb, Matt Groening, Lynda Barry, Stan Mack, Mark Alan Stamaty, Ted Rall, Tom Tomorrow, Ward Sutton, Ruben Bolling and currently M. Wartella.

The Voice is also known for containing adult content, including sex-advice columns and many pages of advertising for “adult services”. This content is located at the back of the newspaper. It is known locally for being the place where most hard rock or jazz concerts are announced, sometimes with full page paid ads. Most groups visiting New York advertise in the Voice for publicity. Most venues in NYC advertise their concerts in The Village Voice.

The Voice‘s competitors in New York City include New York Observer and Time Out New York. In 1996, after decades of carrying a cover price, the Voice switched from a paid weekly to a free, alternative weekly. The Voice’s web site is a past winner of both the National Press Foundation’s Online Journalism Award (2001) and the Editor & Publisher EPpy Award for Best Overall U.S. Newspaper Online Service – Weekly, Community, Alternative & Free (2003).

While the Voice is today known for its staunch support for the civil rights of gays — it publishes an annual Gay Pride issue every June — it wasn’t always so. Early in its history, the newspaper had a reputation as having an anti-homosexual slant. When reporting on the Stonewall riots of 1969, the newspaper referred to the riots as “The Great Faggot Rebellion”. Two reporters, Smith and Truscott, both used the words “faggot” and “dyke” in their articles about the riots. (These words were not commonly used by homosexuals to refer to each other at this time.) After the riot, the Gay Liberation Front attempted to promote dances for gays and lesbians and were not allowed to use the words gay or homosexual, which the newspaper considered derogatory. The newspaper changed their policy after the GLF petitioned the Voice to do so.

The Voice was the second organization in the US known to have extended domestic partner benefits, in July 1982. Jeff Weinstein, an employee of the paper and shop steward for the publishing local of District 65 UAW, negotiated and won agreement in the union contract to extend health, life insurance, and disability benefits to the “spouse equivalents” of its union members.

Seventeen alternative weeklies around the United States are owned by the Voice’s parent company Village Voice Media. In 2005, the Phoenix alternative weekly chain New Times Media purchased the company and took the Village Voice Media name. Previous owners of The Village Voice or of Village Voice Media have included co-founders Fancher and Wolf, New York City Councilman Carter Burden, New York Magazine founder Clay Felker, Rupert Murdoch, and Leonard Stern of the Hartz Mountain empire.

The paper is referenced in the musical Rent during the song La Vie Boheme. The line goes: “To riding your bike midday past the three piece suits, to fruits, to no absolutes; to Absolut; to choice; to The Village Voice, to any passing fad.”

Changes after acquisition by New Times Media

Since being acquired by New Times Media in 2005, the publication’s key personnel have changed and the content has become increasingly mainstream. The Voice is now managed by two journalists from Phoenix, Arizona. Some New York media critics perceive a loss of the paper’s original iconoclastic, bohemian spirit.

In April 2006, the Voice dismissed music editor Chuck Eddy. Four months later the newspaper fired longtime music critic Robert Christgau. In January 2007, the newspaper fired sex columnist and erotica author Rachel Kramer Bussel; long-term creative director Ted Keller, art director Minh Oung, fashion columnist Lynn Yeager and Deputy Art Director LD Beghtol were laid off or fired soon after.

The paper has experienced high turnover among its editorial leadership since 2005. Editor-in-chief Donald Forst resigned in December 2005. Doug Simmons, his replacement, was fired in March 2006 after it was discovered that a reporter had fabricated portions of an article. Simmons’ successor, Erik Wemple, resigned after two weeks. His replacement, David Blum, was fired in March 2007. Afterward, Tony Ortega held the position of editor-in-chief from 2007 to 2012.

In December 2008, The New York Times reported that the situation grew so strained that half of its entire staff was gone. One still-employed writer remarked that the Voice’s managers “don’t seem to be able to sit there and just talk about them with their own work force to deal with these problems”.

The firing of Nat Hentoff, who worked for the paper from 1958 to 2008, led to further criticism of the management by some of its current writers, Hentoff himself, and by the Voice’s ideological rival paper National Review (which referred to Hentoff as a “treasure”). At the end of 2011, Wayne Barrett, who had written for the paper since 1973, was laid off. Fellow muckraking investigative reporter Tom Robbins then resigned in solidarity.

Voice Media Group

In September 2012, Village Voice Media executives Scott Tobias, Christine Brennan and Jeff Mars bought Village Voice Media’s papers and associated web properties from its founders and formed Voice Media Group.

In May 2013, the Village Voice editor Will Bourne and deputy editor Jessica Lustig told The New York Times that they were quitting the paper rather than executing further staff layoffs. Both had been recent hires. The Voice has gone through five editors since 2005. Following Bourne’s and Lustig’s departure, Village Media Group management fired three of the Voice’s longest-serving contributors: gossip and nightlife columnist Michael Musto, restaurant critic Robert Sietsema, and theater critic Michael Feingold, all of whom had been writing for the Voice for decades.

In July 2013, Voice Media Group executives named Tom Finkel editor.

Current Ownership

In October 2015, Peter D. Barbey, through the private investment company Black Walnut Holdings L.L.C., purchased The Village Voice from Voice Media Group. Barbey is a member of one of America’s wealthiest families, who has had ownership interest in the Reading Eagle, a daily newspaper serving the city of Reading, Pennsylvania and the surrounding region, for many years. He serves as president and CEO of the Reading Eagle Company, which also owns and operates AM radio station WEEU.

Blogs

In addition to the weekly print edition circulated around New York City, the paper operates three blogs: Runnin’ Scared (news), Sound of the City (music) and Fork in the Road (restaurants and bar news). The paper operates several social media accounts, including @VillageVoice on Twitter and it also manages a Facebook presence. The film section writers and editors also produce a weekly Voice Film Club podcast.

Awards and honors

• 2013: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Investigative Reporting, for “Rikers Violence” by Graham Rayman
• 2011: New York Press Club Gold Keyboard, for “The NYPD Tapes” by Graham Rayman
• 2011: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Investigative Reporting, for “The NYPD Tapes” by Graham Rayman
• 2011: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Best Staff Blog, for “Runnin’ Scared” news columns, for work by Foster Kamer, Tony Ortega, and Jen Doll
• 2011: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Music Blog, for “Sound of the City” columns, by Rob Harvilla and Zach Baron
• 2010: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Arts Criticism, for work by Jim Hoberman
• 2010: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Political Column, for work by Tom Robbins
• 2010: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Music Criticism, for work by Rob Harvilla
• 2010: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Best Staff Blog, for “Runnin’ Scared” news blog by staff
• 2010: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Music Blog, for “Sound of the City” by staff
• 2009: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Political Column, for work by Tom Robbins
• 2009: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Music Criticism, for work by Rob Harvilla
• 2008: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Music Criticism, for work by Rob Harvilla
• 2008: New York Press Club Continuing Coverage Award / Newspaper, for “Tall Tales of a Mafia Mistress” by Tom Robbins
• 2003: Investigative Reporters and Editors Award, Local Circulation Weekly Category, series “Lush Life of Rudy Appointee” by Tom Robbins
• 2007: Association of Alternative Newsmedia for Investigative Reporting, work by Kristen Lombardi
• 2003: American Society of Journalists and Authors Donald Robinson Award for Investigative Journalism, for “Final Solutions: How IBM Helped Automate the Nazi Death Machine in Poland” by Edwin Black
• 2003: New York Press Club and New York State Bar Association Crystal Gavel Award, for “Why the NYPD Is Fighting for the Right to Spy on You” by Chisun Lee
• 2002: Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism Mike Berger Award for “Crossing to the Other Side” by Michael Kamber
• 2002: Association of Alternative Newsweeklies Award for Feature Writing, for “Crossing to the Other Side” by Michael Kamber
• 2002: Association of Alternative Newsweeklies Award for Photography, for photograph of downtown Manhattan by Andre Souroujon
• 2002: Association of Alternative Newsweeklies Award for Photography for Arts Criticism, work by Greg Tate
• 2002: Association of Alternative Newsweeklies Award for Photography for Cartoon, “Tom the Dancing Bug” by Ken Fisher (Ruben Bolling)
• 2001: Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism Mike Berger Award for “Life on the Outside” by Jennifer Gonnerman
• 2001: National Press Foundation Excellence in Online Journalism Award for www.villagevoice.com
• 2000: Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting, for “AIDS: The Agony of Africa” by Mark Schoofs
• 1986: Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, Jules Feiffer
• 1994: National Press Foundation Kiplinger Distinguished Contributions to Journalism, work by Nat Hentoff
• 1981: Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing, Teresa Carpenter
• 1960: George Polk Award for Community Service

See also

• Gear
• Media of New York City

References

Further reading

External links

• The Village Voice Official site.

Brandon Spencer Call (born November 17, 1976) is an American television and film actor as a child and adolescent. He played J.T. Lambert for seven seasons on the TV series Step by Step.

Personal life

Brandon Spencer Lee Call was born on November 17, 1976, in Torrance, California. His parents are Richard and Elyse, and his three siblings are Dee Anne, Tandi, and Dustin. He is currently divorced, and has a daughter who was born in 1998.

Career

Call began his career as a child actor in 1984 appearing in guest roles on Simon & Simon and Hotel. His film debut was voicing “Fairy #1” in Disney’s The Black Cauldron in 1985. Also in 1985, he landed a recurring role on the NBC daytime drama, Santa Barbara. During his stint on Santa Barbara, Call earned two Young Artist Awards for the role. After leaving the series in 1987, he guest starred on two episodes of St. Elsewhere, and appeared on the short-lived series The Charmings. From 1989 to 1990, Call portrayed Hobie Buchannon on the first season of Baywatch. Also in 1990, he played Billy in the film Blind Fury. The following year, he starred opposite Andrew Dice Clay in The Adventures of Ford Fairlane and in 1991, appeared in For the Boys starring Bette Midler.

That same year, Call was cast as John Thomas “J.T.” Lambert on the ABC sitcom Step by Step, which moved to CBS in 1997. He then regularly appeared as J.T. until the series ended in 1998. After Step by Step ended Call retired from acting.

Shooting

After finishing taping a session for Step by Step on September 3, 1996, Call got into a traffic dispute while driving home and was shot in both arms by Tommy Eugene Lewis. He was treated at the UCLA Medical Center and made a full recovery.

Filmography

Film

• 1985: The Black Cauldron (Alternative title: Taran and the Magic Cauldron) – Fairfolk (Voice)
• 1985: Jagged Edge – David Barnes
• 1989: Blind Fury – Billy Devereaux
• 1989: Warlock (1989 film) – Young boy
• 1990: The Adventures of Ford Fairlane – The Kid
• 1991: For the Boys – Danny Leonard (at 12), New York

Television

• 1984: Simon & Simon – Addie Becker’s Son (1 episode)
• 1984: Hotel – Timmie (1 episode)
• 1985: Slickers (Television movie) – Scooter Clinton
• 1985: I Dream of Jeannie: 15 Years Later (Television movie) – Tony, Jr. (Age 7)
• 1985–1987: Santa Barbara – Brandon Capwell
• 1985–1988: Magnum, P.I. – Billy, Karen’s son (3 episodes)
• 1986: The Richest Cat in the World (Television movie) – Bart
• 1986: Life With Lucy – Max (2 episodes)
• 1987–1989: St. Elsewhere – Christopher McFadden (2 episodes)
• 1987: Webster – Ricky (1 episode)
• 1987: Trying Times – Reggie (1 episode)
• 1987–1988: The Charmings – Thomas Charming (19 episodes)
• 1988: Something Is Out There – Joey (2 episodes)
• 1989: The Gifted One (Television movie) – Michael (age 10)
• 1989–1990: Baywatch – Hobie Buchannon (22 episodes)
• 1991–1998: Step by Step – John Thomas “J.T.” Lambert
• 1994: Thunder in Paradise – Zach (2 episodes)

Awards and nominations

References

External links

• Brandon Call at the Internet Movie Database
• Brandon Call at AllMovie
• http://thefw.com/brandon-call-step-by-step-where-are-they-now/

Code42 is an American software company that develops and markets the CrashPlan backup software and services suite. It was founded in 2001 as an IT consultancy. Code42 started a project to create a Facebook-like desktop application but ended up focusing on the online storage element, and released CrashPlan in 2007. The company raised $52.5 million in 2012.

CrashPlan is offered to consumers in a freemium model. Backing up to Code42’s servers requires a monthly subscription; an enterprise edition is offered as well. CrashPlan gets positive reviews for its pricing, feature-set and user interface, but large initial backups were reported as slow.

History

Code42 was founded as an IT consulting company in 2001, by Matthew Dornquast, Brian Bispala, and Mitch Coopet. The company’s name honors Douglas Adams, who authored Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy and had died that year. In the book, the number 42 is the answer to “life, the universe and everything”.

Some of Code42’s first projects included a redesign of Sun Country Airlines’ website in 2002, a project for the retailer Target Corporation, and the ticket booking engine for Midwest Airlines. Income from the IT services business was used to fund product ideas for six years. In 2006, the company planned to create a Facebook-like desktop application, but the project became too large and impractical. Code42 focused on the online storage element of the application, creating CrashPlan in 2007.

In June 2011, Code42 acquired a Minneapolis-based mobile development company, Recursive Awesome LLC, to support its software on mobile devices. Recursive’s employees were moved to its Minneapolis headquarters and later a 10,000 square-foot expansion to its offices was built. In 2012, Code42 raised $52.5 million in funding. The funding was the first distribution from a $100 million pool established in 2011 by Accel Partners to fund Big Data companies.

In mid 2015 former Eloqua CEO Joe Payne succeeded co-founder Matthew Dornquast as CEO.

Business

As of April 2011, 80% of Code42 Software’s revenue comes from business customers. Most of the remainder comes from consumers and a small portion from service provider partners. Code42 has been profitable each year since it was founded. It grew from $1.4 million in revenue in 2008 to $11.46 million in 2010 and $18.5 million in 2011. As of 2012, the company had backed up 100 petabytes of data and processed 100 billion files a day.

File backup and sharing services

Code42 is best known for developing and marketing the CrashPlan data backup service. CrashPlan backs up data to remote servers, other computers, or hard drives. It is available on Mac, Windows and Linux. The consumer version is sold on a freemium model, where daily local backups are free, but using Code42’s cloud service requires a paid subscription called CrashPlan for Home. There is a paid option for seed loading, in which a hard drive is sent to the user, so a faster local backup can be performed to the drive and it can be shipped back to Code42 for initial backup. There are also CrashPlan and CrashPlan PRO and PROe mobile apps for accessing backed-up data from iOS, Android and Windows devices.

Initial backups may take several hours via LAN or days over the internet, depending on the amount of data and bandwidth available, but afterwards, continuous and incremental backups are conducted without user intervention. Data is encrypted, password-protected and stored in a proprietary format. There is also an option for a more secure private key. Corporate users that have CrashPlan PROe back up to private servers instead of Code42’s data centers in four out of five cases. The software has an option to create a private on-site backup server.

Code42 used to develop and market a file sharing service called SharePlan, which was released in October 2013. According to the Star Tribune, it competed with DropBox, but SharePlan used a PIN to access files and track users. In October 2014, a revision of the software added features for regulatory compliance like Sarbanes-Oxley and options for a private, public or hybrid cloud deployment. It had a single login with Crashplan using a feature called the “Code42 EDGE Platform”, which was improved in December 2014 with two-factor authentication features. Shareplan was discontinued in August 2015.

Reception

In a comparative review in The Wall Street Journal, the reviewer said CrashPlan was their favorite out of the four services evaluated. He said it lacked “fine print”, whereas some of the other services charged additional fees for basic features or weren’t really unlimited. PC Magazine gave CrashPlan 4.5 out of 5 stars and awarded it Editor’s Choice. The review praised it for its user interface, local backup options and security features, but said its mobile and explorer-based features were “limited.”

A product review on MacWorld gave CrashPlan a rating of 4.5 out of 5, and Gartner gave the enterprise version, CrashPlan PROe, an “excellent” rating. In benchmark tests by Computerworld, CrashPlan was the best performer in an incremental backup of 25 MB, but the worst performer in archiving an entire system drive, which took almost five days. A Wall Street Journal columnist also noted lengthy initial backups, followed by better-performing incremental ones. Techworld praised CrashPlan for its operating system support and configuration options. Ars Technica said CrashPlan had better features and pricing options than competitors.

See also

• Comparison of online backup services

References

External links

• Official website

The skeleton of an adult human consists of 207 bones. It is composed of 270 bones at birth, which decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. It consists of 80 bones in the axial skeleton (28 in skull and 52 in torso) and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton (32 x 2 in upper extremities including both arms and 31 x 2 in lower extremities including both legs). Many small and often variable bones, such as some sesamoid bones, are not included in this count.

Introduction

The figure of 206 bones is commonly repeated, but does have some peculiarities in its method of counting. It is taken of an adult human—the number of bones in the skeleton changes with age, as multiple bones fuse,and a process which typically reaches completion in the third decade of life. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux sesamoids, are not.

Individuals may have more or fewer bones than this owing to anatomical variations. The most common variations include additional (i.e. supernumerary) cervical ribs or lumbar vertebrae. Sesamoid bone counts also may vary among individuals.

Bones

Vertebral column

• The spinal vertebrae of the vertebral column (33 bones)
  • The cervical vertebrae (7)
  • The thoracic vertebrae (12)
  • The lumbar vertebrae (5)
  • The sacral vertebrae (5 at birth, later fused into one)
  • The coccygeal vertebrae (4 at birth, later fused into one)

Chest

• The sternum (1)
• The ribs (24, in 12 pairs), including:
  • (3) pairs (8th,9th and 10th pairs), also known as false ribs are attached anteriorly to each other and to the 7th rib by cartilages and synovial joints
  • (2) pairs of floating ribs (11th and 12th pairs), have no anterior attachment.

Head

• The skull (1)
  • The cranial bones (8)
    • The occipital bone
    • The parietal bones (2)
    • The frontal bone
    • The temporal bones (2)
    • The sphenoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
    • The ethmoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
  • The facial bones (15)
    • The nasal bones (2)
    • The maxillae (upper jaw) (2)
    • The lacrimal bone (2)
    • The zygomatic bone (2)
    • The palatine bone (2)
    • The inferior nasal concha (2)
    • The vomer
    • The mandible (lower jaw)
    • The hyoid bone (sometimes not counted as facial)
• In the middle ears (3 x 2=6)
  • malleus (2)
  • incus (2)
  • stapes (2)

Shoulder

• The clavicle (2)
• The scapula (2)

Arm

• The bones of the upper arm (6 bones, 3 each side)
  • The humerus
  • The ulna
  • The radius
• The hand (54 bones, 27 in each hand)
  • The carpals
    • scaphoid bone (2)
    • lunate bone (2)
    • triquetrum bone (2)
    • pisiform bone (2)
    • trapezium (2)
    • trapezoid bone (2)
    • capitate bone (2)
    • hamate bone (2)
  • The metacarpals (5 × 2=10)
  • The phalanges of the hand
    • proximal phalanges (5 × 2=10)
    • intermediate phalanges (4 × 2=8)
    • distal phalanges (5 × 2=10)

Ubey S

• The coxal bone, or hip bones, has three regions: ilium, ischium, and pubis (2)
  • The sacrum and the coccyx attach to the two hip bones to form the pelvis
• The femur
• The patella or knee cap
• The tibia
• The fibula
• The foot (52 bones in total, 26 per foot)
  • The tarsus
    • calcaneus or heel bone (2)
    • talus (2)
    • navicular bone (2)
    • medial cuneiform bone (2)
    • intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
    • lateral cuneiform bone (2)
    • cuboid bone (2)
  • The metatarsals (10)
  • The phalanges of the foot
    • proximal phalanges (5 × 2=10)
    • intermediate phalanges (4 x 2= 8)
    • distal phalanges (5 x 2=10)
    • The sesamoid bones

References

• The 206 Bones of the Human Body

Apache Tomcat, often referred to as Tomcat, is an open-source web server developed by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF). Tomcat implements several Java EE specifications including Java Servlet, JavaServer Pages (JSP), Java EL, and WebSocket, and provides a “pure Java” HTTP web server environment for Java code to run in.

Tomcat is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation, released under the Apache License 2.0 license, and is open-source software.

Components

Tomcat 4.x was released with Catalina (a servlet container), Coyote (an HTTP connector) and Jasper (a JSP engine).

Catalina

Catalina is Tomcat’s servlet container. Catalina implements Sun Microsystems’ specifications for servlet and JavaServer Pages (JSP). In Tomcat, a Realm element represents a “database” of usernames, passwords, and roles (similar to Unix groups) assigned to those users. Different implementations of Realm allow Catalina to be integrated into environments where such authentication information is already being created and maintained, and then use that information to implement Container Managed Security as described in the Servlet Specification.

Coyote

Coyote is a Connector component for Tomcat that supports the HTTP 1.1 protocol as a web server. This allows Catalina, nominally a Java Servlet or JSP container, to also act as a plain web server that serves local files as HTTP documents.

Coyote listens for incoming connections to the server on a specific TCP port and forwards the request to the Tomcat Engine to process the request and send back a response to the requesting client. Another Coyote Connector, Coyote JK, listens similarly but instead forwards its requests to another web server, such as Apache, using the JK protocol. This usually offers better performance.

Jasper

Jasper is Tomcat’s JSP Engine. Jasper parses JSP files to compile them into Java code as servlets (that can be handled by Catalina). At runtime, Jasper detects changes to JSP files and recompiles them.

As of version 5, Tomcat uses Jasper 2, which is an implementation of the Sun Microsystems’s JSP 2.0 specification. From Jasper to Jasper 2, important features were added:

• JSP Tag library pooling – Each tag markup in JSP file is handled by a tag handler class. Tag handler class objects can be pooled and reused in the whole JSP servlet.
• Background JSP compilation – While recompiling modified JSP Java code, the older version is still available for server requests. The older JSP servlet is deleted once the new JSP servlet has finished being recompiled.
• Recompile JSP when included page changes – Pages can be inserted and included into a JSP at runtime. The JSP will not only be recompiled with JSP file changes but also with included page changes.
• JDT Java compiler – Jasper 2 can use the Eclipse JDT (Java Development Tools) Java compiler instead of Ant and javac.

Three new components were added with the release of Tomcat 7:

Cluster

This component has been added to manage large applications. It is used for load balancing that can be achieved through many techniques. Clustering support currently requires the JDK version 1.5 or later.

High availability

A high-availability feature has been added to facilitate the scheduling of system upgrades (e.g. new releases, change requests) without affecting the live environment. This is done by dispatching live traffic requests to a temporary server on a different port while the main server is upgraded on the main port. It is very useful in handling user requests on high-traffic web applications.

Web application

It has also added user- as well as system-based web applications enhancement to add support for deployment across the variety of environments. It also tries to manage sessions as well as applications across the network.

Tomcat is building additional components. A number of additional components may be used with Apache Tomcat. These components may be built by users should they need them or they can be downloaded from one of the mirrors.

Features

Tomcat 7.x implements the Servlet 3.0 and JSP 2.2 specifications. It requires Java version 1.6, although previous versions have run on Java 1.1 through 1.5. Versions 5 through 6 saw improvements in garbage collection, JSP parsing, performance and scalability. Native wrappers, known as “Tomcat Native”, are available for Microsoft Windows and Unix for platform integration.

History

Tomcat started off as a servlet reference implementation by James Duncan Davidson, a software architect at Sun Microsystems. He later helped make the project open source and played a key role in its donation by Sun Microsystems to the Apache Software Foundation. The Apache Ant software build automation tool was developed as a side-effect of the creation of Tomcat as an open source project.

Davidson had initially hoped that the project would become open sourced and, since many open source projects had O’Reilly books associated with them featuring an animal on the cover, he wanted to name the project after an animal. He came up with Tomcat since he reasoned the animal represented something that could fend for itself. Although the tomcat was already in use for another O’Reilly title, his wish to see an animal cover eventually came true when O’Reilly published their Tomcat book with a snow leopard on the cover in 2003.

Releases

Communities

Apache software is built as part of a community process that involves both user and developer mailing lists. The developer list is where discussion on building and testing the next release takes place, while the user list is where users can discuss their problems with the developers and other users.

Some of the free Apache Tomcat resources and communities include Tomcatexpert.com (a SpringSource sponsored community for developers and operators who are running Apache Tomcat in large-scale production environments) and MuleSoft’s Apache Tomcat Resource Center (which has instructional guides on installing, updating, configuring, monitoring, troubleshooting and securing various versions of Tomcat).

Apache TomEE

Apache TomEE (pronounced “Tommy”) is the Java Enterprise Edition of Apache Tomcat (Tomcat + Java EE = TomEE) that combines several Java enterprise projects including Apache OpenEJB, Apache OpenWebBeans, Apache OpenJPA, Apache MyFaces and others. In October 2011, the project obtained certification by Oracle Corporation as a compatible implementation of the Java EE 6 Web Profile.

See also

• MuleSoft, producer of Tcat, an enterprise Tomcat server
• Apache Geronimo, an application server that can use Tomcat as its web container
• Resin Server Application Server from Caucho Technology
• WildFly, formerly known as JBoss Application Server
• Jetty (web server)
• JOnAS, application server that can use Tomcat as its web container
• Apache OpenEJB, can be added to Tomcat to turn it into a JavaEE server
• GlassFish, the reference implementation of Java EE, supporting EJB, JPA, JSF, JMS, Java RMI, JSP, servlets etc.
• Comparison of web servers

References

Bibliography

External links

• Official website
• Project Wiki
• Enterprise Tomcat Community site
• Tutorial – Configuring & Using Tomcat 6 and Tomcat 7

Refinancing may refer to the replacement of an existing debt obligation with another debt obligation under different terms. The terms and conditions of refinancing may vary widely by country, province, or state, based on several economic factors such as, inherent risk, projected risk, political stability of a nation, currency stability, banking regulations, borrower’s credit worthiness, and credit rating of a nation. In many industrialized nations, a common form of refinancing is for a place of primary residency mortgage.

If the replacement of debt occurs under financial distress, refinancing might be referred to as debt restructuring.

A loan (debt) might be refinanced for various reasons:

1. To take advantage of a better interest rate (a reduced monthly payment or a reduced term)
2. To consolidate other debt(s) into one loan (a potentially longer/shorter term contingent on interest rate differential and fees)
3. To reduce the monthly repayment amount (often for a longer term, contingent on interest rate differential and fees)
4. To reduce or alter risk (e.g. switching from a variable-rate to a fixed-rate loan)
5. To free up cash (often for a longer term, contingent on interest rate differential and fees)

Refinancing for reasons 2, 3, and 5 are usually undertaken by borrowers who are in financial difficulty in order to reduce their monthly repayment obligations, with the penalty that they will take longer to pay off their debt.

In the context of personal (as opposed to corporate) finance, refinancing multiple debts makes management of the debt easier. If high-interest debt, such as credit card debt, is consolidated into the home mortgage, the borrower is able to pay off the remaining debt at mortgage rates over a longer period.

For home mortgages in the United States, there may be tax advantages available with refinancing, particularly if one does not pay Alternative Minimum Tax.

Risks

Some fixed-term loans have penalty clauses (“call provisions”) that are triggered by an early repayment of the loan, in part or in full, as well as “closing” fees. There will also be transaction fees on the refinancing. These fees must be calculated before embarking on a loan refinancing, as they can wipe out any savings generated through refinancing. Penalty clauses are only applicable to loans paid off prior to maturity. If a loan is paid off upon maturity it is a new financing, not a refinancing, and all terms of the prior obligation terminate when the new financing funds pay off the prior debt.

If the refinanced loan has the same interest rate as previously, but a longer term, it will result in a larger total interest cost over the life of the loan, and will result in the borrower remaining in debt for many more years. Typically, a refinanced loan will have a lower interest rate. This lower rate, combined with the new, longer term remaining on the loan will lower payments.

A borrower should calculate the total cost of a new loan compared to the existing loan. The new loan cost will include the closing costs, prepayment penalties (if any) and the interest paid over the life of the new loan. This should be lower than the remaining interest that will be paid on the existing loan to see if it makes financial sense to refinance.

In some jurisdictions, varying by American state, refinanced mortgage loans are considered recourse debt, meaning that the borrower is liable in case of default, while un-refinanced mortgages are non-recourse debt.

Points

Refinancing lenders often require a percentage of the total loan amount as an upfront payment. Typically, this amount is expressed in “points” (or “premiums”). 1 point = 1% of the total loan amount. More points (i.e. a larger upfront payment) will usually result in a lower interest rate. Some lenders will offer to finance parts of the loan themselves, thus generating so-called “negative points” (i.e. discounts).

Types (US loans only)

No Closing Cost

Borrowers with this type of refinancing typically pay few if any upfront fees to get the new mortgage loan. This type of refinance can be beneficial provided the prevailing market rate is lower than the borrower’s existing rate by a formula determined by the lender offering the loan. Before you read any further do not provide any lender with a credit card number until they have provided you with a Good Faith Estimate verifying it is truly a 0 cost loan. The appraisal fee cannot be paid for by the lender or broker so this will always show up in the total settlement charges at the bottom of your GFE.

This can be an excellent choice in a declining market or if you are not sure you will hold the loan long enough to recoup the closing cost before you refinance or pay it off. For example, you plan on selling your home in three years, but it will take five years to recoup the closing cost. This could prevent you from considering a refinance, however if you take the zero closing cost option, you can lower your interest rate without taking any risk of losing money.

In this case the broker receives a credit or what’s called yield spread premium (YSP). Yield spread premiums are the cash that a mortgage company receives for originating your loan. The broker provides the client and the documentation needed to process the loan and the lender pays them for providing this service in lieu of paying one of their own loan officers. Since a brokerage can have more than one loan officer originating loans, they can sometimes receive additional YSP for bringing in a volume amount of loans. This is normally based on funding more than 1 million in total loans per month. This can greatly benefit the borrower, especially since April 1, 2011. New laws have been implemented by the federal government mandating that all brokers have set pricing with the lenders they do business with. Brokers can receive so much YSP that they can provide you with a lower rate than if you went directly to the lender and they can pay for all your closing cost as opposed to the lender who would make you pay for all the third party fees on your own. You end up with a lower rate and lower fees. Since the new RESPA law as of April came into effect in 2011, brokers can no longer decide how much they want to make off of the loan. Instead they sign a contract in April stating that they will keep only a certain percentage of the YSP and the rest will go toward the borrowers closing cost.

True No Closing Cost mortgages are usually not the best options for people who know that they will keep that loan for the entire length of the term or at least enough time to recoup the closing cost. When the borrower pays out of pocket for their closing costs, they are at a higher risk of losing the money they invested. In most cases, the borrower is not able to negotiate the fees for the appraisal or escrow. Sometimes, when wrapping closing costs into a loan you can easily determine whether it makes sense to go with the lower rate with closing cost or the slightly higher rate for free. Some cases your payment will be the same, in that case you would want to choose the higher rate with no fees. If the payment for 4.5% with $2,500 in settlement charges is the same for 4.625% for free then you will pay the same amount of money over the length of the loan, however if you choose the loan with closing cost and you refinance before the end of your term you wasted money on the closing cost. Your loan amount will be 2,500 less at 4.625% and your payment is the same.

No Appraisal Required

The Obama Administration authorized several refinance programs aimed at helping underwater homeowners take advantage of the historically low interest rates. Most of these programs do not require an appraisal, and encompass all loan types. The programs offered in 2013 include:

1. FHA Streamline Refinance: The largest group that benefits from this refinance program will be those who have a FHA loan that was endorsed prior to May 31, 2009. For those who meet this date, the FHA PMI rates are very very low. This Streamline Refinance Program without an appraisal is also available to borrowers who no longer live in the property (as their primary residence)/ own the house as Investment Property.
2. VA Loan Refinance: The Veteran’s Administration offers Interest Rate Reduction Refinances IRRR for Veteran Home Owners who simply want to reduce their interest rate, with no appraisal. These loans are also available to qualifying Veteran’s who no longer live in the property as their primary residence.
3. HARP Refinance: When the Home Affordable Refinance Program (HARP) was launched in 2009, it sought to help homeowners with underwater mortgages refinance their loans into lower monthly payments and /or interest rates. Unfortunately, the first version of the program failed to help as many homeowners with underwater mortgages as was hoped, leading to the release of a new and improved version of HARP, dubbed HARP 2, to deal with the complications. HARP 2 no longer caps the loan-to value at 125%, and allows any loan-to-value acceptable, thereby covering underwater homes.
4. USDA Home Loans: No appraisal required – the current residence must be in a USDA “Footprint Area” and currently be insured under the USDA program. So refinancing from a Conventional loan or a FHA loan to USDA will not work under this program. No Credit Report Required – the current mortgage must be current, and all of the previous 12 months of mortgage payments need to be made on time. That’s all. We just verify that you made your house payments on time. Employment Verification Required – we will need to verify that you are employed, and drawing enough money to meet the underwriting guidelines… meaning we must prove that you have enough income to make your house payments. Can not take cash out – All you can do is finance your current loan balance, and the new Guarantee Fee (USDA PMI) which is 1.5%.

Cash-Out

This type of refinance may not help lower the monthly payment or shorten mortgage periods. It can be used for home improvement, credit cards, and other debt consolidation if the borrower qualifies with their current home equity; they can refinance with a loan amount larger than their current mortgage and keep the cash out.

In situations where the borrower has both a first and second mortgage, it is common to consolidate these loans as part of the refinance process. However, even if the borrower does not receive any net “cash out” as part of the transaction, in some cases lenders will consider this a cash-out transaction because of the “12-month rule”. This rule states that any refinance that occurs within 12 months of a second mortgage (that was not part of the original purchase transaction) is considered a cash-out refinance.

See also

• Refinancing risk
• Streamline refinancing
• Refunding

References

External links

• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development – Streamlining your Mortgage
• U.S. Department of Veteran’s Affairs – Mortgage Refinancing Information
• Good Neighbor Next Door – FHA Good Neighbor Next Door
• Indian Home Loan Guarantee Program – Indian Home Loan Guarantee Program
• HUD – Information about HUD

Maid cafés (メイド喫茶 / メイドカフェ, Meido kissa / Meido kafe) are a subcategory of cosplay restaurants found predominantly in Japan. In these cafés, waitresses dressed in maid costumes act as servants, and treat customers as masters (and mistresses) in a private home, rather than as café patrons. The first permanent maid café, Cure Maid Café, was established in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan, in March 2001, but maid cafés are becoming increasingly popular. As they have done so, the increased competition has made use of some unusual tactics in order to attract customers. They have also expanded overseas to countries like China, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Australia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, Mexico, Canada and the United States.

Costume and appearance

The maid costume varies from café to café but most are based upon the costume of French maids, often composed of a dress, a petticoat, a pinafore, a matching hair accessory (such as a frill or a bow), and stockings. Often, employees will also cosplay as anime characters. Sometimes, employees wear animal ears with their outfits to add more appeal.

Waitresses in maid cafés are often chosen on the basis of their appearance; most are young, attractive and innocent-looking women. Applicants are sometimes tested to determine whether they can sufficiently portray a given character that they will be cosplaying. In order to maintain the cosplay fantasy, some employees may be contractually obligated to not reveal personal information to patrons, to slip out of character or to allow patrons to see them out of costume.

Some maid cafés also have crossdressing males as maids.

Clientele

Maid cafés were originally designed primarily to cater to the fantasies of male otaku, fans of anime, manga, and video games. They have been analogized as the otaku’s equivalent of hostess bars. The image of the maid is one that has been popularized and fetishized in many manga and anime series, as well as in gal games. Important to the otaku attraction to maid cafés is the Japanese concept of moe, which is a character trope in otaku media which describes young, innocent-looking female characters. People who have moe fetishes (especially a specific subcategory known as maid moe) are therefore attracted to an establishment in which they can interact with real-life manifestations (both physically and in demeanor) of the fictional maid characters that they have fetishized. Cafés may also employ a tsundere theme – another character trope which is a subset of the moe phenomenon and refers to a character who is initially cold or hostile before revealing feelings of warmth or affection.

Around 2003 and 2004, maid cafés became more common and popular in Japan as otaku culture became increasingly mainstream. As a result, there has been a diversification of themes and services at the restaurants but they are ultimately still predominantly colored by anime and video games. Today, the maid café phenomenon attracts more than just male otaku, but also couples, tourists, and women.

Menu

Most maid cafés offer menus similar to those of more typical cafés. Customers can order coffee, other beverages, and a wide variety of entrées and desserts. However, in maid cafés, waitresses will often decorate a customer’s order with cute designs at his or her table. Syrup can be used to decorate desserts, and omelette rice (オムライス, Omu-raisu), a popular entrée, is typically decorated using ketchup. This service adds to the image of the waitress as an innocent but pampering maid.

Rituals, etiquette and additional services

There are many rituals and additional services offered at many maid cafés. Maids greet customers with “Welcome home, Master (Mistress)” (お帰りなさいませ、ご主人様！, Okaerinasaimase, goshujinsama) and offer them wipe towels and menus. Maids will also kneel by the table to stir cream and sugar into a customer’s coffee, and some cafés even offer spoon-feeding services to customers. Increasingly, maid cafés offer grooming services, such as ear cleanings and leg, arm, and back massages (provided the customer remains fully clothed), for an additional fee. Customers can also sometimes play rock-paper-scissors, card, board and video games with maids as well as prepare arts and crafts and sing karaoke.

Customers are also expected to follow basic rules when patronizing a maid café. One Tokyo maid café recently published a list of ten rules that customers should follow in a maid café. For example, customers should not touch a maid’s body, ask for a maid’s personal contact information, or otherwise invade her personal privacy (by stalking). One common rule in a maid café is that photographs of maids or the café interior are forbidden. However, customers may have the option of paying an extra fee in order to get his or her photograph taken with a maid, possibly hand-decorated by the maid.

See also

• Butler cafe
• Cigarette girl

References

Further reading

• Hoffman, Ken. “A haircut and more at Maid Café”. Houston Chronicle. December 5, 2011.
• Shigeto Kawahara. “The phonetics of Japanese maid voice I: A preliminary study” (PDF). 

External links

• Media related to Maid cafés at Wikimedia Commons

Reflex neurovascular dystrophy (RND), also known as complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, is a rare sympathetic nervous system disorder characterized by severe chronic pain.

Popular culture

On the February 12, 2013 Dance Moms episode titled Rotten to the Core, Dance Mom Holly revealed her daughter and dancer Nia suffers from RND. Holly revealed Nia had been pain free for two years but expressed concern over a relapse due to demands of competitive dancing.

References

External links

• Informational handout
• Program at the Children’s Institute of Pittsburgh

NetFlow is a feature that was introduced on Cisco routers that provides the ability to collect IP network traffic as it enters or exits an interface. By analyzing the data provided by NetFlow, a network administrator can determine things such as the source and destination of traffic, class of service, and the causes of congestion. A typical flow monitoring setup (using NetFlow) consists of three main components:

• Flow exporter: aggregates packets into flows and exports flow records towards one or more flow collectors.
• Flow collector: responsible for reception, storage and pre-processing of flow data received from a flow exporter.
• Analysis application: analyzes received flow data in the context of intrusion detection or traffic profiling, for example.

Protocol description

Routers and switches that support NetFlow can collect IP traffic statistics on all interfaces where NetFlow is enabled, and later export those statistics as NetFlow records toward at least one NetFlow collector – typically a server that does the actual traffic analysis.

Network Flows

A network flow can be defined in many ways. Cisco standard NetFlow version 5 defines a flow as a unidirectional sequence of packets that all share the following 7 values:

1. Ingress interface (SNMP ifIndex)
2. Source IP address
3. Destination IP address
4. IP protocol
5. Source port for UDP or TCP, 0 for other protocols
6. Destination port for UDP or TCP, type and code for ICMP, or 0 for other protocols
7. IP Type of Service

Note that the Egress interface, IP Nexthop or BGP Nexthops are not part of the key, and may not be accurate if the route changes before the expiration of the flow, or if load-balancing is done per-packet.

That definition of flows is also used for IPv6, and a similar definition is used for MPLS and Ethernet flows.

Advanced NetFlow or IPFIX implementations like Cisco Flexible NetFlow allow user-defined flow keys.

A typical output of a NetFlow command line tool (nfdump in this case) when printing the stored flows may look as follows:

 Date flow start          Duration Proto   Src IP Addr:Port      Dst IP Addr:Port     Packets    Bytes Flows
 2010-09-01 00:00:00.459     0.000 UDP     127.0.0.1:24920   ->  192.168.0.1:22126        1       46     1
 2010-09-01 00:00:00.363     0.000 UDP     192.168.0.1:22126 ->  127.0.0.1:24920          1       80     1

Export of NetFlow records

The router will output a flow record when it determines that the flow is finished. It does this by flow aging: when the router sees new traffic for an existing flow it resets the aging counter. Also, TCP session termination in a TCP flow causes the router to expire the flow. Routers can also be configured to output a flow record at a fixed interval even if the flow is still ongoing.

NetFlow Packet transport protocol

NetFlow records are traditionally exported using User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and collected using a NetFlow collector. The IP address of the NetFlow collector and the destination UDP port must be configured on the sending router. The standard value is UDP port 2055, but other values like 9555 or 9995, 9025, 9026 etc. can also be used.

For efficiency reasons, the router traditionally does not keep track of flow records already exported, so if a NetFlow packet is dropped due to network congestion or packet corruption, all contained records are lost forever. The UDP protocol does not inform the router of the loss so it can send the packets again. This can be a real problem, especially with NetFlow v8 or v9 that can aggregate a lot of packets or flows into a single record. A single UDP packet loss can cause a huge impact on the statistics of some flows.

That is why some modern implementations of NetFlow use the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) to export packets so as to provide some protection against packet loss, and make sure that NetFlow v9 templates are received before any related record is exported. Note that TCP would not be suitable for NetFlow because a strict ordering of packets would cause excessive buffering and delays.

The problem with SCTP is that it requires interaction between each NetFlow collector and each routers exporting NetFlow. There may be performance limitations if a router has to deal with many NetFlow collectors, and a NetFlow collector has to deal with lots of routers, especially when some of them are unavailable due to failure or maintenance.

SCTP may not be efficient if NetFlow must be exported toward several independent collectors, some of which may be test servers that can go down at any moment. UDP allows simple replication of NetFlow packets using Network taps or L2 or L3 Mirroring. Simple stateless equipment can also filter or change the destination address of NetFlow UDP packets if necessary. Since NetFlow export almost only use network backbone links, packet loss will often be negligible. If it happens, it will mostly be on the link between the network and the NetFlow collectors.

NetFlow Packet header

All NetFlow packets begin with version-dependent header, that contains at least these fields:

• Version number (v1，v5, v7，v8, v9)
• Sequence number to detect loss and duplication
• Timestamps at the moment of export, as system uptime or absolute time.
• Number of records (v5 or v8) or list of templates and records (v9)

NetFlow Record

A NetFlow record can contain a wide variety of information about the traffic in a given flow.

NetFlow version 5 (one of the most commonly used versions, followed by version 9) contains the following:

• Input interface index used by SNMP (ifIndex in IF-MIB).
• Output interface index or zero if the packet is dropped.
• Timestamps for the flow start and finish time, in milliseconds since the last boot.
• Number of bytes and packets observed in the flow
• Layer 3 headers:
  • Source & destination IP addresses
  • Source and destination port numbers for TCP, UDP, SCTP
  • ICMP Type and Code.
  • IP protocol
  • Type of Service (ToS) value
• For TCP flows, the union of all TCP flags observed over the life of the flow.
• Layer 3 Routing information:
  • IP address of the immediate next-hop (not the BGP nexthop) along the route to the destination
  • Source & destination IP masks (prefix lengths in the CIDR notation)

For ICMP flows, the Source Port is zero, and the Destination Port number field codes ICMP message Type and Code (port = ICMP-Type * 256 + ICMP-Code).

The source and destination Autonomous System (AS) number fields can report the destination AS (last AS of AS-Path) or the immediate neighbor AS (first AS of AS-Path). depending on the router configuration. But the AS number will be zero if the feature is not supported, the route is unknown or not announced by BGP, or the AS is the local AS. There is no explicit way to distinguish between these cases.

NetFlow version 9 can include all of these fields and can optionally include additional information such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) labels and IPv6 addresses and ports,

By analyzing flow data, a picture of traffic flow and traffic volume in a network can be built. The NetFlow record format has evolved over time, hence the inclusion of version numbers. Cisco maintains details of the different version numbers and the layout of the packets for each version.

NetFlow interfaces

NetFlow is usually enabled on a per-interface basis to limit load on the router components involved in NetFlow, or to limit the amount of NetFlow records exported.

NetFlow usually captures all packets received by an ingress IP interface, but some NetFlow implementations use IP filters to decide if a packet can be observed by NetFlow.

Some NetFlow implementations also allow the observation of packets on the egress IP interface, but this must be used with care: all flows from any ingress interface with NetFlow enabled to any interface with NetFlow enabled could be counted twice.

Sampled NetFlow

Standard NetFlow was designed to process all IP packets on an interface. But in some environments, e.g. on Internet backbones, that was too costly, due to the extra processing required for each packet, and large number of simultaneous flows.

So Cisco introduced sampled NetFlow on Cisco 12000, and that is now used in all high-end routers that implement NetFlow.

Only one packet out of n is processed, where n, the sampling rate, is determined by the router configuration.

The exact selection process depends on the implementation:

• One packet every n packet, in Deterministic NetFlow, as used on Cisco’s 12000.
• One packet randomly selected in an interval of n packet, in Random Sampled NetFlow, used on modern Cisco routers.

Some implementations have more complex methods to sample packets, like per-flow sampling on Cisco Catalysts.

The sampling rate is often the same for all interfaces, but can be adjusted per interface for some routers. When Sampled NetFlow is used, the NetFlow records must be adjusted for the effect of sampling – traffic volumes, in particular, are now an estimate rather than the actual measured flow volume.

The sampling rate is indicated in a header field of NetFlow version 5 (same sampling rate for all interfaces) or in option records of NetFlow version 9 (sampling rate per interface)

NetFlow Versions

NetFlow and IPFIX

NetFlow was initially implemented by Cisco, and described in an “informational” document that was not on the standards track: RFC 3954 – Cisco Systems NetFlow Services Export Version 9. The NetFlow protocol itself has been superseded by Internet Protocol Flow Information eXport (IPFIX). Based on the NetFlow Version 9 implementation, IPFIX is on the IETF standards track with RFC 5101 (obsoleted by RFC 7011), RFC 5102 (obsoleted by RFC 7012), etc. which were published in 2008.

NetFlow equivalents

Many vendors other than Cisco provide an equivalent technology on their routers and switches, but some use a different name for the technology, probably because NetFlow is thought to be a Cisco trademark (even though as of March 2012 it is not listed in Cisco Trademarks):

• Jflow or cflowd for Juniper Networks
• NetStream for 3Com/HP
• NetStream for Huawei Technologies
• Cflowd for Alcatel-Lucent
• Rflow for Ericsson
• AppFlow Citrix
• Traffic Flow MikroTik
• sFlow vendors include: Alaxala, Alcatel Lucent, Allied Telesis, Arista Networks, Brocade, Cisco, Dell, D-Link, Enterasys, Extreme, Fortinet, Hewlett-Packard, Hitachi, Huawei, IBM, Juniper, LG-Ericsson, Mellanox, MRV, NEC, Netgear, Proxim Wireless, Quanta Computer, Vyatta, ZTE and ZyXEL

NetFlow support

NetFlow variants

Cisco’s NetFlow Security Event Logging

Introduced with the launch of the Cisco ASA 5580 products, NetFlow Security Event Logging utilizes NetFlow v9 fields and templates in order to efficiently deliver security telemetry in high performance environments. NetFlow Security Event Logging scales better than syslog while offering the same level of detail and granularity in logged events.

NetFlow Monitoring Based on Standalone Probes

NetFlow collection using standalone NetFlow probes is an alternative to flow collection from routers and switches. This approach can overcome some limitations of router-based NetFlow monitoring. The probes are transparently connected to the monitored link as a passive appliance using the TAP or SPAN port of the appliance.

Historically, NetFlow monitoring is easier to implement in a dedicated probe than in a router. However, this approach also has some drawbacks:

• probes must be deployed on every link that must be observed, causing additional hardware, setup and maintenance costs.
• probes will not report separate input and output interface information like a report from a router would.
• probes may have problems reporting reliably the NetFlow fields related to routing, like AS Numbers or IP masks, because they can hardly be expected to use exactly the same routing information as a router.

The easiest way to address the above drawbacks is to use a Packet Capture Appliance inline in front of the router and capture all of the NetFlow output from the router. This method allows for storage of large amount of NetFlow data (typically many years worth of data) and does not require reconfiguration of the network.

NetFlow collection from dedicated probes is well suited for observation of critical links, whereas NetFlow on routers provides a Network-wide view of the traffic that can be used for capacity planning, accounting, performance monitoring, and security.

History

NetFlow was originally a Cisco packet switching technology for Cisco routers, implemented in IOS 11.x around 1996. It was originally a software implementation for the Cisco 7000, 7200 and 7500, where it was thought as an improvement over the then current Cisco Fast Switching. It carries U.S. patent # 6,243,667.

The idea was that the first packet of a flow would create a NetFlow switching record. This record would then be used for all later packets of the same flow, until the expiration of the flow. Only the first packet of a flow would require an investigation of the route table to find the most specific matching route. This is an expensive operation in software implementations, especially the old ones without Forwarding information base. The NetFlow switching record was actually some kind of route cache record, and old versions of IOS still refer to the NetFlow cache as ip route-cache.

This technology was advantageous for local networks. This was especially true if some of the traffic had to be filtered by an ACL as only the first packet of a flow had to be evaluated by the ACL.

NetFlow switching soon turned out to be unsuitable for big routers, especially Internet backbone routers, where the number of simultaneous flows was much more important than those on local networks, and where some traffic causes lots of short-lived flows, like Domain Name System requests (whose source port is random for security reasons).

As a switching technology, NetFlow was replaced around 1995 by Cisco Express Forwarding. This first appeared on Cisco 12000 routers, and later replaced NetFlow switching on advanced IOS for the Cisco 7200 and Cisco 7500.

As of 2012, technologies similar to NetFlow switching are still in use in most firewalls and software-based IP routers. For instance the conntrack feature of the Netfilter framework used by Linux.

See also

• Traffic flow (computer networking)
• IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) – IETF standards-track flow export protocol, based on NetFlow version 9
• sFlow – alternative to NetFlow (mandatory sampling, no flow cache, no templates )

References

External links

• NetFlow/FloMA: Pointers and Software Provided by SWITCH. – One of the most comprehensive list including all the open source and research works.
• FloCon – The Annual Conference put on by CERT/CC dealing with network flow data and analysis.
• Basic NetFlow information on the Cisco Site
• RFC3334 – Policy-Based Accounting
• RFC3954 – NetFlow Version 9
• RFC3917 – Requirements for IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX)
• RFC3955 – Candidate Protocols for IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX)
• RFC5101 – Specification of the IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Protocol for the Exchange of IP Traffic Flow Information (IPFIX)
• RFC5102 – Information Model for IP Flow Information Export
• RFC5103 – Bidirectional Flow Export Using IP Flow Information Export
• RFC5153 – IPFIX Implementation Guidelines
• RFC5470 – Architecture for IP Flow Information Export
• RFC5471 – Guidelines for IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Testing
• RFC5472 – IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) Applicability
• RFC5473 – Reducing Redundancy in IP Flow Information Export (IPFIX) and Packet Sampling (PSAMP) Reports
• Using Netflow to store re-aggregated inbound and outbound flows
• AppFlow specifications and standards track discussion
• Understanding NetFlow Principle Animation

Software development is the process of computer programming, documenting, testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining applications and frameworks involved in a software release life cycle and resulting in a software product. The term refers to a process of writing and maintaining the source code, but in a broader sense of the term it includes all that is involved between the conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, ideally in a planned and structured process. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products.

Software can be developed for a variety of purposes, the three most common being to meet specific needs of a specific client/business (the case with custom software), to meet a perceived need of some set of potential users (the case with commercial and open source software), or for personal use (e.g. a scientist may write software to automate a mundane task). Embedded software development, that is, the development of embedded software such as used for controlling consumer products, requires the development process to be integrated with the development of the controlled physical product. System software underlies applications and the programming process itself, and is often developed separately.

The need for better quality control of the software development process has given rise to the discipline of software engineering, which aims to apply the systematic approach exemplified in the engineering paradigm to the process of software development.

There are many approaches to software project management, known as software development life cycle models, methodologies, processes, or models. The waterfall model is a traditional version, contrasted with the more recent innovation of agile software development.

Methodologies

A software development process (also known as a software development methodology, model, or life cycle) is a framework that is used to structure, plan, and control the process of developing information systems. A wide variety of such frameworks have evolved over the years, each with its own recognized strengths and weaknesses. There are several different approaches to software development: some take a more structured, engineering-based approach to developing business solutions, whereas others may take a more incremental approach, where software evolves as it is developed piece-by-piece. One system development methodology is not necessarily suitable for use by all projects. Each of the available methodologies is best suited to specific kinds of projects, based on various technical, organizational, project and team considerations.

Most methodologies share some combination of the following stages of software development:

• Analyzing the problem
• Market research
• Gathering requirements for the proposed business solution
• Devising a plan or design for the software-based solution
• Implementation (coding) of the software
• Testing the software
• Deployment
• Maintenance and bug fixing

These stages are often referred to collectively as the software development lifecycle, or SDLC. Different approaches to software development may carry out these stages in different orders, or devote more or less time to different stages. The level of detail of the documentation produced at each stage of software development may also vary. These stages may also be carried out in turn (a “waterfall” based approach), or they may be repeated over various cycles or iterations (a more “extreme” approach). The more extreme approach usually involves less time spent on planning and documentation, and more time spent on coding and development of automated tests. More “extreme” approaches also promote continuous testing throughout the development lifecycle, as well as having a working (or bug-free) product at all times. More structured or “waterfall” based approaches attempt to assess the majority of risks and develop a detailed plan for the software before implementation(coding) begins, and avoid significant design changes and re-coding in later stages of the software development life cycle planning.

There are significant advantages and disadvantages to the various methodologies, and the best approach to solving a problem using software will often depend on the type of problem. If the problem is well understood and a solution can be effectively planned out ahead of time, the more “waterfall” based approach may work the best. If, on the other hand, the problem is unique (at least to the development team) and the structure of the software solution cannot be easily envisioned, then a more “extreme” incremental approach may work best.

Software development activities

Identification of need

The sources of ideas for software products are legion. These ideas can come from market research including the demographics of potential new customers, existing customers, sales prospects who rejected the product, other internal software development staff, or a creative third party. Ideas for software products are usually first evaluated by marketing personnel for economic feasibility, for fit with existing channels distribution, for possible effects on existing product lines, required features, and for fit with the company’s marketing objectives. In a marketing evaluation phase, the cost and time assumptions become evaluated. A decision is reached early in the first phase as to whether, based on the more detailed information generated by the marketing and development staff, the project should be pursued further.

In the book “Great Software Debates”, Alan M. Davis states in the chapter “Requirements”, subchapter “The Missing Piece of Software Development”

Students of engineering learn engineering and are rarely exposed to finance or marketing. Students of marketing learn marketing and are rarely exposed to finance or engineering. Most of us become specialists in just one area. To complicate matters, few of us meet interdisciplinary people in the workforce, so there are few roles to mimic. Yet, software product planning is critical to the development success and absolutely requires knowledge of multiple disciplines.

Because software development may involve compromising or going beyond what is required by the client, a software development project may stray into less technical concerns such as human resources, risk management, intellectual property, budgeting, crisis management, etc. These processes may also cause the role of business development to overlap with software development.

Planning

Planning is an objective of each and every activity, where we want to discover things that belong to the project. An important task in creating a software program is extracting the requirements or requirements analysis. Customers typically have an abstract idea of what they want as an end result, but do not know what software should do. Skilled and experienced software engineers recognize incomplete, ambiguous, or even contradictory requirements at this point. Frequently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk that the requirements are incorrect.

Once the general requirements are gathered from the client, an analysis of the scope of the development should be determined and clearly stated. This is often called a scope document.

Certain functionality may be out of scope of the project as a function of cost or as a result of unclear requirements at the start of development. If the development is done externally, this document can be considered a legal document so that if there are ever disputes, any ambiguity of what was promised to the client can be clarified.

Designing

Once the requirements are established, the design of the software can be established in a software design document. This involves a preliminary, or high-level design of the main modules with an overall picture (such as a block diagram) of how the parts fit together. The language, operating system, and hardware components should all be known at this time. Then a detailed or low-level design is created, perhaps with prototyping as proof-of-concept or to firm up requirements.

Implementation, testing and documenting

Implementation is the part of the process where software engineers actually program the code for the project.

Software testing is an integral and important phase of the software development process. This part of the process ensures that defects are recognized as soon as possible. In some processes, generally known as test-driven development, tests may be developed just before implementation and serve as a guide for the implementation’s correctness.

Documenting the internal design of software for the purpose of future maintenance and enhancement is done throughout development. This may also include the writing of an API, be it external or internal. The software engineering process chosen by the developing team will determine how much internal documentation (if any) is necessary. Plan-driven models (e.g., Waterfall) generally produce more documentation than Agile models.

Deployment and maintenance

Deployment starts directly after the code is appropriately tested, approved for release, and sold or otherwise distributed into a production environment. This may involve installation, customization (such as by setting parameters to the customer’s values), testing, and possibly an extended period of evaluation.

Software training and support is important, as software is only effective if it is used correctly.

Maintaining and enhancing software to cope with newly discovered faults or requirements can take substantial time and effort, as missed requirements may force redesign of the software.

Other

• Performance engineering

Subtopics

View model

A view model is a framework that provides the viewpoints on the system and its environment, to be used in the software development process. It is a graphical representation of the underlying semantics of a view.

The purpose of viewpoints and views is to enable human engineers to comprehend very complex systems, and to organize the elements of the problem and the solution around domains of expertise. In the engineering of physically intensive systems, viewpoints often correspond to capabilities and responsibilities within the engineering organization.

Most complex system specifications are so extensive that no one individual can fully comprehend all aspects of the specifications. Furthermore, we all have different interests in a given system and different reasons for examining the system’s specifications. A business executive will ask different questions of a system make-up than would a system implementer. The concept of viewpoints framework, therefore, is to provide separate viewpoints into the specification of a given complex system. These viewpoints each satisfy an audience with interest in some set of aspects of the system. Associated with each viewpoint is a viewpoint language that optimizes the vocabulary and presentation for the audience of that viewpoint.

Business process and data modelling

Graphical representation of the current state of information provides a very effective means for presenting information to both users and system developers.

• A business model illustrates the functions associated with the business process being modeled and the organizations that perform these functions. By depicting activities and information flows, a foundation is created to visualize, define, understand, and validate the nature of a process.
• A data model provides the details of information to be stored, and is of primary use when the final product is the generation of computer software code for an application or the preparation of a functional specification to aid a computer software make-or-buy decision. See the figure on the right for an example of the interaction between business process and data models.

Usually, a model is created after conducting an interview, referred to as business analysis. The interview consists of a facilitator asking a series of questions designed to extract required information that describes a process. The interviewer is called a facilitator to emphasize that it is the participants who provide the information. The facilitator should have some knowledge of the process of interest, but this is not as important as having a structured methodology by which the questions are asked of the process expert. The methodology is important because usually a team of facilitators is collecting information across the facility and the results of the information from all the interviewers must fit together once completed.

The models are developed as defining either the current state of the process, in which case the final product is called the “as-is” snapshot model, or a collection of ideas of what the process should contain, resulting in a “what-can-be” model. Generation of process and data models can be used to determine if the existing processes and information systems are sound and only need minor modifications or enhancements, or if re-engineering is required as a corrective action. The creation of business models is more than a way to view or automate your information process. Analysis can be used to fundamentally reshape the way your business or organization conducts its operations.

Computer-aided software engineering

Computer-aided software engineering (CASE), in the field software engineering is the scientific application of a set of tools and methods to a software which results in high-quality, defect-free, and maintainable software products. It also refers to methods for the development of information systems together with automated tools that can be used in the software development process. The term “computer-aided software engineering” (CASE) can refer to the software used for the automated development of systems software, i.e., computer code. The CASE functions include analysis, design, and programming. CASE tools automate methods for designing, documenting, and producing structured computer code in the desired programming language.

Two key ideas of Computer-aided Software System Engineering (CASE) are:

• Foster computer assistance in software development and or software maintenance processes, and
• An engineering approach to software development and or maintenance.

Typical CASE tools exist for configuration management, data modeling, model transformation, refactoring, source code generation.

Integrated development environment

An integrated development environment (IDE) also known as integrated design environment or integrated debugging environment is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of a:

• source code editor,
• compiler and/or interpreter,
• build automation tools, and
• debugger (usually).

IDEs are designed to maximize programmer productivity by providing tight-knit components with similar user interfaces. Typically an IDE is dedicated to a specific programming language, so as to provide a feature set which most closely matches the programming paradigms of the language.

Modeling language

A modeling language is any artificial language that can be used to express information or knowledge or systems in a structure that is defined by a consistent set of rules. The rules are used for interpretation of the meaning of components in the structure. A modeling language can be graphical or textual. Graphical modeling languages use a diagram techniques with named symbols that represent concepts and lines that connect the symbols and that represent relationships and various other graphical annotation to represent constraints. Textual modeling languages typically use standardised keywords accompanied by parameters to make computer-interpretable expressions.

Example of graphical modelling languages in the field of software engineering are:

• Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN, and the XML form BPML) is an example of a process modeling language.
• EXPRESS and EXPRESS-G (ISO 10303-11) is an international standard general-purpose data modeling language.
• Extended Enterprise Modeling Language (EEML) is commonly used for business process modeling across layers.
• Flowchart is a schematic representation of an algorithm or a stepwise process,
• Fundamental Modeling Concepts (FMC) modeling language for software-intensive systems.
• IDEF is a family of modeling languages, the most notable of which include IDEF0 for functional modeling, IDEF1X for information modeling, and IDEF5 for modeling ontologies.
• LePUS3 is an object-oriented visual Design Description Language and a formal specification language that is suitable primarily for modelling large object-oriented (Java, C++, C#) programs and design patterns.
• Specification and Description Language(SDL) is a specification language targeted at the unambiguous specification and description of the behaviour of reactive and distributed systems.
• Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general-purpose modeling language that is an industry standard for specifying software-intensive systems. UML 2.0, the current version, supports thirteen different diagram techniques, and has widespread tool support.

Not all modeling languages are executable, and for those that are, using them doesn’t necessarily mean that programmers are no longer needed. On the contrary, executable modeling languages are intended to amplify the productivity of skilled programmers, so that they can address more difficult problems, such as parallel computing and distributed systems.

Programming paradigm

A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming, which is not generally dictated by the project management methodology (such as waterfall or agile). Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program (such as objects, functions, variables, constraints) and the steps that comprise a computation (such as assignations, evaluation, continuations, data flows). Sometimes the concepts asserted by the paradigm are utilized cooperatively in high-level system architecture design; in other cases, the programming paradigm’s scope is limited to the internal structure of a particular program or module.

A programming language can support multiple paradigms. For example, programs written in C++ or Object Pascal can be purely procedural, or purely object-oriented, or contain elements of both paradigms. Software designers and programmers decide how to use those paradigm elements. In object-oriented programming, programmers can think of a program as a collection of interacting objects, while in functional programming a program can be thought of as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, process-oriented programming allows programmers to think about applications as sets of concurrent processes acting upon logically shared data structures.

Just as different groups in software engineering advocate different methodologies, different programming languages advocate different programming paradigms. Some languages are designed to support one paradigm (Smalltalk supports object-oriented programming, Haskell supports functional programming), while other programming languages support multiple paradigms (such as Object Pascal, C++, C#, Visual Basic, Common Lisp, Scheme, Python, Ruby, and Oz).

Many programming paradigms are as well known for what methods they forbid as for what they enable. For instance, pure functional programming forbids using side-effects; structured programming forbids using goto statements. Partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to earlier styles. Avoiding certain methods can make it easier to prove theorems about a program’s correctness, or simply to understand its behavior.

Examples of high-level paradigms include:

• Aspect-oriented software development
• Domain-specific modeling
• Model-driven engineering
• Object-oriented programming methodologies
  • Grady Booch’s object-oriented design (OOD), also known as object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD). The Booch model includes six diagrams: class, object, state transition, interaction, module, and process.
• Search-based software engineering
• Service-oriented modeling
• Structured programming
• Top-down and bottom-up design
  • Top-down programming: evolved in the 1970s by IBM researcher Harlan Mills (and Niklaus Wirth) in developed structured programming.

Software framework

A software framework is a re-usable design or implementation for a software system or subsystem. A software framework may include support programs, code libraries, a scripting language, or other software to help develop and glue together the different components of a software project. Frameworks can reduce, consolidate, and standardize logic as well as execute proprietary implementations without exposing their intellectual property or sensitive implantation variables. Various parts and components of the framework may be exposed via an API. These exposed interfaces are considered ‘public’ and represent a common protocol of information and procedure; they are typically ‘exposed’ through declarations, protocols, and public methods. Similar to an iceberg, a great deal of a framework’s actual implementation and/or logic may not be ‘visible’ through an API. This portion of a framework is considered ‘Private’, even though the framework may be open-source or physically visible to the developer/implementer, the ‘public vs. private’ identification distinctions are based on what is exposed to the consuming resource.

See also

• Best coding practices
• Continuous integration
• Custom software
• Functional specification
• Programming productivity
• Software blueprint
• Software design
• Software development effort estimation
• Software development process
• Software project management
• Specification and Description Language
• User experience

Roles and industry

• Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
• Computer programmer
• Consulting software engineer
• Offshore software development
• Software developer
• Software engineer
• Software industry
• Software publisher

Specific applications

• Video game development
• Web application development
• Web engineering

References

Further reading

• Edward Kit (1992). Software Testing in The Real World.
• Jim McCarthy (1995). Dynamics of Software Development.
• Dan Conde (2002). Software Product Management: Managing Software Development from Idea to Product to Marketing to Sales.
• A.M. Davis (2005). Just enough requirements management: where software development meets marketing.
• Edward Hasted. (2005). Software That Sells : A Practical Guide to Developing and Marketing Your Software Project.
• Luke Hohmann (2003). Beyond Software Architecture: Creating and Sustaining Winning Solutions.
• John W. Horch (2005). “Two Orientations On How To Work With Objects.” In: IEEE Software. vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 117–118, Mar., 1995.
• John Rittinghouse (2003). Managing Software Deliverables: A Software Development Management Methodology.
• Karl E. Wiegers (2005). More About Software Requirements: Thorny Issues and Practical Advice.
• Robert K. Wysocki (2006). Effective Software Project Management.

“Over My Head (Cable Car)” (originally performed as “Cable Car“) is a song by American rock band The Fray. It is included on their debut album How to Save a Life (2005) and was the debut single from the album and hit the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The single helped propel their album from the Top Heatseekers chart to the top 20 of The Billboard 200 chart. The single is available exclusively as a digital download. Some CD singles of the song were given out to attendees of a concert on December 17, 2005. The CD single was backed with “Heaven Forbid” and a live version of “Hundred”. In the UK, “Over My Head (Cable Car)” was released as the second single from the album, following “How to Save a Life”.

The song sold over two million digital downloads in the United States and was certified double platinum by the RIAA in May 2006. The song was the fifth most-downloaded single of 2006 and was ranked #13 on the Hot 100 singles of 2006 by Billboard. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals in 2007. It lost to “My Humps” by The Black Eyed Peas.

The song was ranked #43 on Billboard’s Best Adult Pop Songs of the Decade list and #100 on Billboard’s Top 100 Digital Tracks of the Decade list.

Song meaning

The song was written about lead singer and pianist Isaac Slade’s relationship with his brother, Caleb, nicknamed “Cable Car”. He wrote the song because he and his brother were allegedly not speaking and were at odds with each other:

“It is about a fight I got in with my brother, Caleb. After he graduated high school, we drifted apart and really hadn’t spoken in a long time. One day we both realized that we needed to fight it out. We’d been friends for 20 years. That’s a long time when you’re only 23 years old. We fought it out, and he’s one of my best friends today.”

The song was originally recorded as a demo early in the band’s life. This demo version was picked up by Denver radio station KTCL, and became one of the station’s most played songs of 2005.

Reception

Critical

Billboard called the tune “a timeless pop-rock smash that soars with lightness and ease.” Stylus Magazine called it a “10/10, single of the year, instant classic track”.

Commercial

The song became a top 40 hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 2005. It lasted three weeks on the chart and peaked at position No. 37. The single gained airplay nationally, entering the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the issue marked February 25, 2006. 14 weeks later it reached its peak position at No. 8 on the Hot 100 chart. On the Billboard Adult Top 40 chart, the single reached the No. 2 position. The single also saw airplay on some Christian radio stations and spent several weeks on the R&R Christian charts, where it peaked at No. 27.

Internationally, the song was a Top 25 hit in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand and the UK. In the beginning of 2007, the song became popular in the Netherlands.

Music video

The music video was directed by Elliott Lester and was filmed on July 24, 2005 at East High School (Denver, Colorado) and at Fox Theatre in Boulder, Colorado. The video shows the members of the band as children, who attract the attention of other children by playing various instruments. Micah Slade, the youngest brother of Isaac Slade, assumes the role of Isaac as a child in the music video. While the video was not granted much airplay on MTV, it peaked at No. 2 in the VH1 Top 20 Countdown. It was ranked number 8 on VH1’s “Top 40 Videos of 2006.”

Trivia

• There is a slightly different version of the song which is 4:10 in length.
• The song is played for Tampa Bay Rays relief pitcher Chad Bradford due to his wind-up style when pitching.
• It appears as a selectable track in SingStar Pop (US version) and in the DS game Jam Sessions as well as Karaoke Revolution:American Idol Encore and Lips
• The song appeared on the American top hits compilation NOW 22, which debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart.
• The song was released as a limited time free download on Xbox Live as part of their “Artist of the Month” promotion.
• The song was performed by Crosby Loggins, the winner of the show Rock the Cradle in Spring 2008.
• The song was featured in promotionals for What About Brian in Australia.
• The song was included in the soundtrack of the film Stealth.
• The song was used in a memorial service for four fallen Oakland police officers along with “Free Bird” and “Rock ‘n’ Roll Jesus” and following their shooting on March 21, 2009.
• The song plays in the background of McGee’s apartment in the NCIS episode “Bloodbath.”
• The song also appears in episode 3 (“Man With No Name”) of season 12 of the American medical drama ER.
• The song was covered by A Day to Remember for the Punk Goes Pop 2 compilation.
• The song was used in the 2010 film She’s Out of My League during a scene at an ice hockey game.
• The song was used at the end of the Allen Gregory episode “Gay School Dance.”

Charts

Certifications

References

External links

• Over My Head (Cable Car) Official Video.
• Official Lyrics to “Over my Head (Cable Car)”
• Full lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics

Radcliffe College was a women’s liberal arts college in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and functioned as a female coordinate institution for the all-male Harvard College. It was also one of the Seven Sisters colleges, among which it shared with Bryn Mawr College the popular reputation of having a particularly intellectual and independent-minded student body. Radcliffe conferred Radcliffe College diplomas to undergraduates and graduate students for the first 70 or so years of its history and then joint Harvard-Radcliffe diplomas to undergraduates beginning in 1963. A formal “non-merger merger” agreement with Harvard was signed in 1977, with full integration with Harvard completed in 1999. Today, within Harvard University, Radcliffe’s former administrative campus (Radcliffe Yard) is home to the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and former Radcliffe housing at the Radcliffe Quadrangle (Pforzheimer House, Cabot House, and Currier House) has been incorporated into the Harvard College house system. Under the terms of the 1999 consolidation, the Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle retain the “Radcliffe” designation in perpetuity.

History

The “Harvard Annex,” a private program for the instruction of women by Harvard faculty, was founded in 1879 after prolonged efforts by women to gain access to Harvard College. Arthur Gilman, Cambridge resident, banker, philanthropist and writer, was the founder of what became The Annex/Radcliffe. At a time when higher education for women was a controversial – if not scandalous – undertaking, Gilman hoped to establish a higher educational opportunity for his daughter that exceeded what was generally available in female seminaries and the new women’s colleges such as Vassar and Wellesley, most of which in their early years had substantial numbers of faculty who were not university trained. In conversations with the chair of Harvard’s classics department, he outlined a plan to have Harvard faculty deliver instruction to a small group of Cambridge and Boston women. He then approached Harvard President Charles William Eliot with the idea and Eliot approved. Gilman and Eliot recruited a group of prominent and well-connected Cambridge women to manage the plan. These women were Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, Mary H. Cooke, Stella Scott Gilman, Mary B. Greenough, Ellen Hooper Gurney, Alice Mary Longfellow and Lillian Horsford.

Building upon Gilman’s premise, the committee convinced 44 members of the Harvard faculty to consider giving lectures to female students in exchange for extra income paid by the committee. The program came to be known informally as “The Harvard Annex.” The course of study for the first year included 51 courses in 13 subject areas, an “impressive curriculum with greater diversity than that of any other women’s college at its inception. Courses were offered in Greek, Latin, English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish; philosophy, political economy, history, music, mathematics, physics, and natural history.” The first graduation ceremonies took place in the library of Longfellow House on Brattle Street, just above where George Washington’s generals had slept a century earlier.

The committee members hoped that by raising an enticing endowment for The Annex they would be able to convince Harvard to admit women directly into Harvard College. However, the university resisted. In his inaugural address as president of Harvard in 1869, Charles Eliot summed up the official Harvard position toward female students when he said, “The world knows next to nothing about the capacities of the female sex. Only after generations of civil freedom and social equality will it be possible to obtain the data necessary for an adequate discussion of woman’s natural tendencies, tastes, and capabilities…It is not the business of the University to decide this mooted point.” In a similar vein, when confronted with the notion of females receiving Harvard degrees in 1883, the University’s treasurer stated, “I have no prejudice in the matter of education of women and am quite willing to see Yale or Columbia take any risks they like, but I feel bound to protect Harvard College from what seems to me a risky experiment.”

Some of President Eliot’s objections stemmed from 19th century notions of propriety. He was strongly against co-education, commenting that “The difficulties involved in a common residence of hundreds of young men and women of immature character and marriageable age are very grave. The necessary police regulations are exceedingly burdensome.”

The committee persevered despite Eliot’s skepticism. Indeed, the project proved to be a success, attracting a growing number of students. As a result, the Annex was incorporated in 1882 as the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, widow of Harvard professor Louis Agassiz, as president. This Society awarded certificates to students but did not have the power to confer academic degrees. In subsequent years, on-going discussions with Harvard about admitting women directly into the university still came to a dead end, and instead Harvard and the Annex negotiated the creation of a degree-granting institution, with Harvard professors serving as its faculty and visiting body. This modification of the Annex was chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as Radcliffe College in 1894. The Boston Globe reported “President of Harvard To Sign Parchments of the Fair Graduates”). The College was named for Lady Ann Mowlson, born Radcliffe, who established the first scholarship at Harvard in 1643. Students seeking admission to the new women’s college were required to sit for the same entrance examinations required of Harvard students.

By 1896, the Globe could headline a story: “Sweet Girls. They Graduate in Shoals at Radcliffe. Commencement Exercises at Sanders Theatre. Galleries Filled with Fair Friends and Students. Handsome Mrs. Agassiz Made Fine Address. Pres Eliot Commends the Work of the New Institution.” The Globe said “Eliot stated that the percentage of graduates with distinction is much higher at Radcliffe than at Harvard” and that although “[i]t is to yet to be seen whether the women have the originality and pioneering spirit which will fit them to be leaders, perhaps they will when they have had as many generations of thorough education as men.” In 1904, a popular historian wrote of the College’s genesis: “… it set up housekeeping in two unpretending rooms in the Appian Way, Cambridge. … Probably in all the history of colleges in America there could not be found a story so full of colour and interest as that of the beginning of this woman’s college. The bathroom of the little house was pressed into service as a laboratory for physics, students and instructors alike making the best of all inconveniences. Because the institution was housed with a private family, generous mothering was given to the girls when they needed it.”

Moving on from the little house, in the first two decades of the 20th century Radcliffe championed the beginnings of its own campus consisting of the Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle in Cambridge, Massachusetts, not far from that of Harvard. The original Radcliffe gymnasium and library, and the Bertram, Whitman, Eliot, and Barnard dormitories were constructed during this period. With the 1920s and 1930s came dormitories Briggs Hall (1924) and Cabot Hall (1937) on the Quadrangle, and in the Radcliffe Yard the administrative building Byerly Hall (1932) and the classroom building Longfellow Hall (1930).

Radcliffe’s optimistic construction activities during this period belied a somewhat tense relationship with Harvard. Despite – or perhaps more accurately, because of – Radcliffe’s success in its early years there were still Harvard faculty who resented the women’s institution. English professor Barrett Wendell warned his colleagues about continued cooperation with Radcliffe, stating that Harvard could “suddenly find itself committed to coeducation somewhat as unwary men lay themselves open to actions for breach of promise.” In Wendell’s view, Harvard needed to remain “purely virile.” As late as the 1930s Harvard president A. Lawrence Lowell still took a dim view of Radcliffe, maintaining that the time Harvard professors spent providing lectures to women distracted the faculty from their scholarship, and providing Radcliffe women access to research facilities and Harvard museums was – in his view – an unnecessary burden on the university’s resources. He threatened to scuttle the relationship between the two institutions. Radcliffe was forced to agree to a limitation on the size of its student body, with 750 spaces for undergraduates and 250 for graduate students. A ceiling on enrollment of women when compared to the enrollment of men—renegotiated upward at various points throughout the relationship with Harvard—remained a constant in Radcliffe’s existence until the 1977 “non-merger merger.”

In 1923 Ada Comstock, a leader in the movement to provide women with higher education who hailed from the University of Minnesota and Smith College, became the college’s third president, and a key figure in the College’s early 20th century development. Speaking of her, one alumna remembers that “we were in awe of ‘Miss Comstock… and knew even then that we had been touched by a vanishing breed of female educator. Ada Comstock had an extraordinary presence—she radiated dignity, strength, and decisiveness.” In the early 1940s she negotiated a new relationship with Harvard that vastly expanded women’s access to the full Harvard course catalog.

Presidents of Radcliffe College

The Office of the President was created with the incorporation of The Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women in 1882. The Society became Radcliffe College in 1894.

Growth and national prominence

In his history of Radcliffe, David McCord set the College apart from the other Seven Sister institutions, stating that “there is one respect in which Radcliffe differs from her sisters, and this should be made clear. Although she divides with Barnard, Bryn Mawr and Wellesley all advantages of a large city, and enjoys the further privilege of being front-fence neighbor to Harvard University, Radcliffe alone has had from the first the strength of a university faculty. … Thus, from the beginning, Radcliffe has been a woman’s Harvard. It is still a separate institution, with its own corporation, receiving from Harvard no financial aid.” Because it had a university – as opposed to “collegiate” – faculty, Radcliffe was unique among the Seven Sisters in being able to provide a graduate program with a wide number of opportunities for students to pursue advanced studies. In fact, M. Carey Thomas, the second president and chief visionary of Bryn Mawr College, had actually lobbied against the conversion of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women into Radcliffe College precisely because the Cambridge rival’s access to a university faculty competed with Bryn Mawr’s own academic ambitions. Between 1890 and 1963, Radcliffe awarded more than 750 PhDs and more than 3000 masters degrees to women. During the 1950s, the school conferred more PhDs to women than any schools other than Columbia and the University of Chicago. In 1955–56, the College produced more female PhDs than any other institution in the United States.

Because Radcliffe’s faculty was Harvard’s, in the college’s first 50 years professors from Harvard – each under individual contracts with the Radcliffe administration – duplicated lectures, providing them first for men in the Harvard Yard and then crossing the Cambridge Common to provide the same lectures to women in the Radcliffe Yard. Of this experience Professor Elwood Byerly wrote that he “always found the spirit, industry, and ability of the girls admirable—indeed, the average has been higher in my mathematics classes in the Annex than in my classes at the college. High academic achievement – compared to Harvard – came to be viewed as a Radcliffe norm. The New York Times reported with surprise in 1915 that all of the prizes offered in a playwriting competition at Harvard and Radcliffe that year were won by Radcliffe students. One of the Harvard contributions received honorable mention. In the early 1960s the newspaper also reported that “taking the same courses and exams as Harvard, 60 percent of Radcliffe’s girls [sic] were on the Dean’s List as compared with 42 percent of Harvard men [sic].”

However, in the College’s early years not all Harvard faculty and administrators took Radcliffe students seriously. The Harvard administration was at best ambivalent about the notion of faculty members cooperating with the women’s institution. Harvard President Eliot in 1888 communicated to a faculty member he intended to hire that “There is no obligation to teach at The Annex. Those professors who on general grounds take an interest in the education of women…feel some obligation but there are many professors who think it their duty NOT to teach there, in which opinion some of the Corporation and Overseers agree.” Dorothy Howells notes that “Allegations were made that Radcliffe was a “vampire” and a “temptress” enticing the teacher from his career-advancing research and publication with the lure of additional income.” Ruth Hubbard, a member of the Harvard faculty from 1974 to 1990 and a member of the Radcliffe class of 1944, noted that “the senior (Harvard) professors were less than thrilled to have to repeat their lectures at Radcliffe. The lower rank faculty members, who were sometimes detailed off to teach the introductory science courses at Radcliffe instead of teaching Harvard students, felt even more declasse.” Marion Cannon Schlesinger, Radcliffe Class of 1934, noted that “there were, to be sure, certain professors who looked with horror at the incursions of women into the sacred precincts of Harvard College, even at the safe distance of the Radcliffe Yard, and would have nothing to do with the academic arrangements by which their colleagues taught the Radcliffe girls. Professor Roger Merriman, for example, the first master of Eliot House and a professor of history, would not have been caught dead teaching a Radcliffe class.”.

During World War II, declines in male enrollment at Harvard and heightened sensitivity about the use of resources called for a new, more efficient arrangement concerning faculty time. Under the leadership of President Comstock, Radcliffe and Harvard signed an agreement that for the first time allowed Radcliffe and Harvard students to attend the same classes in the Harvard Yard, officially beginning joint instruction in 1943. Equally significant, the agreement ended the era in which individual faculty members at Harvard could choose whether to enter contracts with Radcliffe. The agreement instead opened the entire Harvard catalogue to Radcliffe students, in exchange for which Radcliffe made a payment to Harvard of a fixed portion of Radcliffe tuitions. President Comstock noted that the agreement was “the most significant event since our charter was granted in 1894.” All Harvard faculty, whether interested or not, had a legal obligation to teach Radcliffe students. (In practice a few holdouts on the Harvard faculty maneuvered around this obligation by announcing that their classes had “limited enrollment” and then limiting enrollment solely to male students.) At the time both Harvard and Radcliffe were adamant in telling the press that this arrangement was “joint instruction” but not “coeducation.” Reacting to the agreement, Harvard President James Bryant Conant famously stated that “Harvard was not coeducational in theory, only in practice.” Indeed, Radcliffe continued to maintain a separate admissions office which, by general acknowledgement, was more stringent in its academic requirements of applicants than Harvard’s. Most extra-curricular activities at the two colleges remained separate.

In the years after WWII Radcliffe negotiated a higher ceiling on its student enrollment. This success was orchestrated in tandem with additional housing construction. Moors Hall was completed in 1949, Holmes Hall in 1952, the Cronkhite Graduate Center in 1956, and Comstock Hall in 1958. The added dormitory space and national recruiting campaigns led to an increasingly national and international student body. The Jordan Cooperative Houses – an option for students to engage in more communal living, with student responsibility for shopping for food, preparing meals and housekeeping – were built in 1961, and the College purchased Wolbach Hall, an apartment building also known as 124 Walker Street, in 1964. Radcliffe constructed Hilles Library in 1970 and the Radcliffe Quadrangle Athletic Center in 1982.

The year 1961 was a watershed year in the College’s housing arrangements. In that year, President Mary Bunting reorganized the autonomous Radcliffe dormitories into “Houses,” mirroring Harvard’s Houses and Yale’s residential colleges. The three Houses (North, South, and East) were eventually consolidated into two (North and South), and then in 1970 the College completed construction of Currier House, the first Radcliffe House designed with the “House Plan” in mind. [South House eventually was renamed Cabot House in 1984 while North House became Pforzheimer House in 1995.] Bunting felt that the house system would give Radcliffe students an intellectual community comparable to what Harvard students were getting, bringing together faculty and students in a way the free-standing Radcliffe dormitories did not, and allowing all to see with greater clarity the aspirations, capabilities, and interests of undergraduate women. Speaking generally about her philosophy for Radcliffe, President Bunting noted that “part of our special purpose is to convey to our students and through them to others that there is no basic conflict between being intellectual and being feminine.”

Bunting also established “The Radcliffe Institute” in 1961. The Institute – a precursor to the current Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study – gave financial support, access to research libraries and facilities, and recognition to scholarly women who had taken time away from intellectual pursuits to focus on home and family. In providing women with a venue to return to academe, Bunting was recognizing that traditional academic institutions were premised on a male life trajectory where a scholar’s domestic concerns were taken care of by someone else (usually a wife). The Radcliffe Institute (later renamed the Bunting Institute) was an institution premised on the needs of a female life trajectory, providing opportunities that might otherwise have been truncated by women’s decisions during early adulthood to leave academia to raise children.

Graduate and post-graduate opportunities

Radcliffe staff were invested in assisting women graduates with career planning and placement, as well as providing a number of different programs to provide post-graduate study for women. The Harvard-Radcliffe Program in Business Administration was begun as career training for alums interested in business. It grew to become a vehicle for women to pursue study at Harvard’s Business School.

Other post-graduate courses of study at Radcliffe grew as the undergraduate women students became more a part of Harvard University. The Radcliffe Publishing Course offered students experience in editing and other skills needed to enter the field of publishing. The Radcliffe Seminars Program in Landscape Design gave students a chance to study landscape design before it was a course of study at the Harvard Design School, and in a less formal environment.

Student life and notable extracurricular activities

Beyond the life of the mind, another appeal of Radcliffe was the comparative freedom that its undergraduates enjoyed compared to students at other women’s colleges. Cambridge and Boston provided diversions that were denied to women at more geographically isolated institutions. In his history of the College David McCord noted that “the music, theaters and museums were surprisingly close.” While students at many women’s colleges only had social interactions with men on weekends, Radcliffe students saw men in town and, after 1943, in classes and laboratories on a daily basis while still having their own institution, student organizations and activities, and space. And in the 1950s, an era of “in loco parentis” at many postsecondary institutions, it was common at women’s colleges for housemothers to keep diligent watch of the time when women returned to their dorms, locking the doors when check-in hour had arrived and punishing women who missed their check-in times. Radcliffe students, by contrast, had their own dormitory keys and filled out sign-in sheets when they arrived in the evening. Their lives were not as cloistered as those of some of their counterparts at the sister schools, and according to an article in Mademoiselle Magazine, “it was the richness and freedom of life at Radcliffe,” which left its mark on the student body. One graduate of the class of 1934 noted that, “We were getting the best education in the country, and besides, we weren’t banished to the sticks to rusticate. Weekends at Yale and Princeton may have been the answer to a maiden’s prayer at Vassar, but we did not have to wait for ceremonial weekends for our entertainment: there were those among the Harvard population who recognized our “merits.” A student from the early 1960s picked up on this theme, contrasting the Radcliffe experience with that of Smith. “There are smart girls at Smith, all right,” she said. “But they don’t seem to get much out of them there. Four years later they don’t seem to be any brighter. And they have this crazy week-end system. You spend all week in Bermuda shorts, with your hair in curlers, worrying over who’s going to take you to Amherst or New Haven Friday night. It seems to me that sort of thing actually retards you in the long run.” (Conversely, the greater seclusion of places such as Smith, Vassar and Mt. Holyoke sometimes made these latter institutions more attractive to socially conservative families.)

Reflecting on her time at Radcliffe, writer Alison Lurie stated that “most of the time we were in a mild state of euphoria…our lives were luxurious by modern undergraduate standards…We had private rooms, cleaned and tidied by tolerant Irish maids; a laundry called for our dirty clothes every week and returned them carefully washed and ironed; we ate off of china in our own dining room and sat in drawing rooms that resembled those of a good women’s club.”

“Pluck” was a quality attributed to some Radcliffe students. Beth Gutcheon of the class of 1967 wrote in a reminiscence that “One night a classmate of mine was leaving the library alone at eleven when somebody jumped her from behind and knocked her to the ground. She yelled, ‘Oh, Christ, I don’t have time for this. I have an exam tomorrow!’ and after a disappointed pause, her attacker got up and went away.”

Throughout most of the College’s history, residential life and student activities at Radcliffe remained separate from those at Harvard, with separate dormitories and dining facilities (located on the Radcliffe Quadrangle), newspapers (The Radcliffe News, Percussion), radio stations (WRRB and WRAD, a.k.a. Radio Radcliffe), drama society (The Idler), student government (Radcliffe Student Government Association and later, The Radcliffe Union of Students), yearbooks, athletic programs, choral associations (The Radcliffe Choral Society, the Cliffe Clefs, and later the Radcliffe Pitches), etc. (located in the Radcliffe Yard). Radcliffe had greater diversity in housing options than Harvard, with college-owned frame houses, an apartment building, and co-operative housing for students who were not interested in immersion in dormitory life or life within the House System.

Dances were popular features of undergraduate life. “At different times there were class dances, club dances, junior and senior proms, sophomore tea dances, Christmas dances, and spring formals. Dormitory-based dances were known as ‘jolly-ups.'” One particularly popular event during the 1950s was the Radcliffe Grant in Aid show, which was sponsored by the Student Government. The show raised money for scholarships and always ended with a student kick-line in red shorts. Perhaps because of the shorts, Harvard students were particularly drawn to the event.

The Radcliffe Choral Society was a popular and influential student group. Started in 1899 and conducted by Marie Gillison, a German-born singing teacher, the group cultivated an interest in sophisticated classical music at a time when many collegiate choral groups were devoted to college songs and more popular ditties. Archibald Davidson, who took up the reigns of conducting the Choral Society after Gillison (he also conducted the Harvard Glee Club), stated, “I sometimes wonder how much, if anything, Harvard realizes that it owes to Radcliffe…Harvard…should not forget that while its Glee Club was slowly progressing toward enlightenment, Radcliffe, just across the Common, had for a long time under Mrs. Gillison’s direction set an example of devotion to the best music.” Davidson added that “without the early and enthusiastic cooperation of ‘the young ladies of Radcliffe’ the impressive tradition of college choral singing, which is now nationwide and which is always associated first with Cambridge, would almost certainly have been established much later here or would have originated elsewhere.” Arranged by Mrs. Gillison, the 1917 Choral Society concert with the Harvard Glee Club and the Boston Symphony Orchestra was a footnote in music history, the first time a university chorus sang with a major orchestra. The concert became an annual tradition for many years.

The Radcliffe Crew is the oldest women’s rowing program in the Ivy League. Even after the merger of Harvard and Radcliffe Colleges, the team maintains the Radcliffe name and Radcliffe colors as a sign of respect for the tradition of Radcliffe and the women who fought to establish the rowing program. The crew has a distinguished history. The team won the national championship in 1973 and thus got to represent the United States at the Eastern European Championships in Moscow. In 1974, the Eastern Association of Women’s Rowing Colleges (EAWRC) was formed and in 1974 and 1975, Radcliffe won consecutive Eastern Sprints titles. In 1987, Radcliffe’s heavyweight varsity eight completed an undefeated season with a victory at Eastern Sprints and an Ivy championship title. Six of the crew’s eight rowers went on to compete in the Olympic Games. In 1989, Radcliffe was also undefeated with a Sprints championship and Ivy title. The season finale was a victory in the Open Eight at the Henley Women’s Regatta in England.

Growing consolidation with Harvard

The parallel Radcliffe and Harvard student universes—with formal intersections only in the classroom (but plenty of informal socializing outside of class)—continued until the 1960s. At this point, awareness of the comparative benefits of Radcliffe vis-a-vis the other Seven Sisters was increasingly eclipsed by growing sensitivity to the disadvantages that Radcliffe students had vis-a-vis Harvard students. Harvard students lived closer to the Harvard Yard, while Radcliffe students had a longer walk to Yard-based classes from the Radcliffe Quadrangle. Harvard housing was more luxurious than Radcliffe dormitories, and much more of the schools’ shared intellectual life took place on the Harvard campus. Financial aid and student prizes at Harvard were larger than those at Radcliffe, even though students from the two schools were enrolled in the same courses. By the late 1950s the terms of the “joint instruction” agreement still imposed a ceiling on the enrollment of Radcliffe students, with Harvard males getting four times the number of spots in a freshman class that Radcliffe students got. And at the end of four years of study, students at Harvard received a diploma from Harvard while Radcliffe students taking the same courses received a diploma from Radcliffe.

These asymmetries did not bother all students, as some viewed the differences as a matter of course between two different institutions. This perspective was particularly strong with Radcliffe students who graduated before the turbulent 1960s. One alumna from the 1940s mused that at Radcliffe “we were supremely happy in our own environment. For us, Harvard remained ‘the other.’ Most of us felt no connection to it;…instead, we enjoyed our own collegiate activities and traditions. Another graduate from the class of 1949 noted that she was “having my cake and eating it, too. In addition to my Harvard education, I was enjoying the benefits of a small women’s college. The Radcliffe Quadrangle was quiet and peaceful, life in the dormitories was friendly and gracious. … The women who had chosen to come to Radcliffe all were intelligent, quite independent, and concerned with the world around them.” Additionally, Radcliffe offered a cultural advantage over Harvard: even when enrolled in the same courses, Harvard and Radcliffe student took exams separately, as Radcliffe College’s honor code necessitated a vastly different exam-taking environment: “Where the men’s exam rituals included proctors, dress codes, and a strict requirement of silence, the Radcliffe women took un-proctored exams, relished the chance to wear informal pants instead of skirts, and could enter and exit the building as they wished so long as they did not cheat.” Similarly, the Radcliffe honor code provided for more generous library and campus space privileges (for student groups) than the more bureaucratic Harvard systems allowed.

However, some people within the Radcliffe community were less sanguine about the differences between the two schools, seeing the relationship with Harvard as an institutionalized separate but unequal experience for women. Writer Alison Lurie reflected that “for Radcliffe students of my time the salient fact about Harvard was that it so evidently was not ours. Our position was like that of poor relations living just outside the walls of a great estate: patronized by some of our grand relatives, tolerated by others, and snubbed or avoided by the rest.”

Famed poet Adrienne Rich, class of 1951, described receiving an “insidious double message” when she was at Radcliffe. Radcliffe students “were told that we were the most privileged college women in America,” but “while intellectual and emotional life went on with intensity in all-female dorms, and we had our own newspaper, our own literary magazine, clubs, and student government, we knew that the real power (and money) were invested in Harvard’s institutions, from which we were excluded.”

Acceptance of the 19th century rationales for this exclusion was fading, particularly as during the 1960s a nationwide movement for co-education grew. Reflecting this movement, many Radcliffe students began to insist upon receiving Harvard diplomas for their academic work and upon merging Radcliffe and Harvard extra-curricular activities. Growing budgetary problems at Radcliffe encouraged this insistence. The Radcliffe Graduate School merged with Harvard’s in 1963, and from that year onward Radcliffe undergraduates received Harvard University diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard. (Harvard students’ diplomas were signed only by the president of Harvard.) Many Radcliffe and Harvard student groups combined during the decade, and joint commencement exercises between the two institutions began in 1970. In 1971, largely in response to gains made by newly co-ed Princeton and Yale in their respective yields of students admitted to Harvard, Yale and Princeton, and to comparable admissions competition posed by the increasing national popularity of co-ed Stanford, Harvard president Derek Bok reduced the admissions ratio of Harvard students to Radcliffe students from 4:1 to 5:2. That same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students through an experimental program, and in 1972 full co-residence between the two colleges was instituted. The schools’ departments of athletics merged shortly thereafter.

By the late 1960s there were open discussions between Radcliffe and Harvard about complete merger of the two institutions—which in truth meant abolition of Radcliffe. However, a merger study committee of the Radcliffe Alumnae Association recommended caution. In a prepared statement, the committee reported that “it would be a mistake to dissolve Radcliffe at this time. Women’s self-awareness is increasing as the ‘women’s liberation’ movement develops and as moderate groups call attention to the life styles and problems particular to women. This is precisely the wrong time to abolish a prestigious women’s college which should be giving leadership to women as they seek to define and enlarge their role in society.”

Instead of a complete merger, in 1977 Radcliffe president Matina Horner and Harvard president Derek Bok signed an agreement that, through their admission to Radcliffe, put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. The so-called “non-merger merger” combined the Radcliffe and Harvard admissions offices and ended the forced ceiling on female enrollment. In practice most of the energies of Radcliffe (which remained an autonomous institution) were then devoted to the institution’s research initiatives and fellowships, rather than to female undergraduates. The Harvard and Radcliffe undergraduate communities and classes came to be known officially as “Harvard and Radcliffe” or “Harvard-Radcliffe”, and female students continued to be awarded degrees signed by both presidents. Radcliffe continued to own its campus and provided financial aid, undergraduate prizes, and externship and fellowship opportunities to Radcliffe students, and the College continued to sponsor academic access programs for high school girls and continuing education opportunities for people outside the traditional college age. The College also continued to support programs and workshops targeting female undergraduates.

In practice, though, Radcliffe at this point had minimal impact on the average undergraduate’s day to day experiences at the university. This minimal role fueled still more talk about a full merger of the two schools. Conversely, supporters of the “non-merger merger” maintained that the agreement gave Radcliffe students the full benefits of Harvard citizenship while allowing maintenance of the proud Radcliffe identity, an institution with its own mission, programs, financial resources and alumnae network. For this latter camp, women anxious for full merger were analogous to women who were desperate to marry, rushing to take their husbands’ names and turning their independent wealth and property over to their husbands to manage as their dowry. In her history of the Seven Sister colleges Liva Baker noted, “It was an old story; marriage for economic security, the sort that can hardly help but result in complete absorption of the weaker by the stronger.”

The full merger faction ultimately prevailed. On October 1, 1999, Radcliffe College was fully absorbed into Harvard University; female undergraduates were henceforward members only of Harvard College while Radcliffe College evolved into the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. The goals of the founders of The Annex had arguably been achieved, as through the merger Harvard College was now admitting women. One pleased alumna noted, “I never thought Radcliffe should exist and I am glad to see it gone.”

Radcliffe after the merger with Harvard

The Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, now a division of Harvard University, carries on many of the research and professional development programs that Radcliffe College pioneered and has introduced other programs to the worldwide community of scholars. The end of Radcliffe’s role as an undergraduate institution, however, still has its detractors. “Although I realize the merger was inevitable,” a member of the class of 1959 commented, “…I nevertheless regret the loss of my college, which gave me so much. Another noted that she “feels sad that Radcliffe College no longer exists. It, far more than Harvard, defined my college experience. I can’t remember a single Harvard classmate, but two of my best friends are fellow Cliffies and I exchange correspondence with about a dozen more.” Indeed, many Radcliffe alumnae feel their institution has relinquished its distinguished identity in favor of a male-oriented one that remains steadfastly dismissive of women’s concerns. This latter perspective gained some traction when, in a voice reminiscent of Presidents Eliot and Lowell, Harvard’s early 21st century president Lawrence Summers publicly stated that women were not as capable in the sciences as men. Additionally, shortly after full merger of the two schools, Harvard undergraduate women feeling a void in Harvard’s support for women’s intellectual and personal development started to lobby Harvard to create a women’s center. Perhaps not surprisingly, memories of Harvard’s historical indifference to women have led many Radcliffe alumnae to maintain primary ties to Radcliffe College and not to Harvard University. “Womenless history has been a Harvard specialty,” Laurel Thatcher Ulrich noted. The Annex gained some vindication against Presidents Eliot, Lowell, and Summers when Drew Gilpin Faust, Dean of the Radcliffe Institute, replaced Summers and became Harvard’s first female president.

Radcliffe College alumnae continue to press Harvard on the question of the University’s commitment to women, and increasing the number of female faculty members at Harvard is a particular alumnae interest. Former Radcliffe president Matina Horner once told the New York Times of her surprise when she first delivered a lecture at Harvard in 1969 and four male students approached her. One told her that they “just wanted to see what it felt like to be lectured by a woman and if a woman could be articulate.” Picking up on the perceived common Harvard blind-eye to women’s intellectual competence and reflecting on the fact that while at Radcliffe they had had very few female faculty members, in the late 1990s a group of Radcliffe alums established The Committee for The Equality of Women at Harvard. The group has chosen to boycott Harvard’s fundraising campaigns and sent letters to all 27,000 Radcliffe alumnae and to 13,000 Harvard alumni asking them to shift their donations to an escrow account until the university stepped up its efforts to add women to its tenured faculty. The group has not established quotas that it wants Harvard to meet. Rather, it has said that individual Harvard departments should measure their percentage of tenured women faculty against a “realistically available pool” and create a plan to increase the number of women if that percentage falls short. The group has said when departments do so, the escrow account (now called the Harvard Women’s Faculty Fund) will be turned over to Harvard.

In the meantime, enriched by hundreds of millions of dollars that Harvard conferred unto Radcliffe at the time of the full merger, the Radcliffe Institute today awards dozens of annual fellowships to prominent academics. Although it does not focus solely on women returning to academe, it is a major research center within Harvard University. Its Schlesinger Library is one of America’s largest repositories of manuscripts and archives relating to the history of women.

Several undergraduate student organizations in Harvard College still refer to Radcliffe in their names, (for example the Radcliffe Union of Students, Harvard’s feminist organization; the Radcliffe Choral Society, Harvard’s female choir (now one of the Holden Choirs), which has alumnae from both Radcliffe and Harvard and maintains a repertoire of Radcliffiana; the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra; the Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players; the Radcliffe Pitches, a female a cappella singing group; and the Harvard-Radcliffe Dramatic Club). Two athletic teams still compete under the Radcliffe name: varsity crew, which still rows with Radcliffe’s black-and-white oarblades and uniforms instead of Harvard’s crimson-and-white (in 1973 the team had been the only varsity team which voted not to adopt the Harvard name); and club rugby union. In addition, the Harvard University Band still plays a Radcliffe fight song.

Notable alumnae

A number of Radcliffe alumnae have gone on to become notable in their respective fields, such as:

Popular culture

• All About Eve is a film whose script references Radcliffe three times.
  • Addison (George Sanders) says during Karen’s (Celeste Holm) introduction, “(voice-over) Nothing in her background or breeding should have brought her any closer to the stage than row E, center… however, during her senior year in Radcliffe, Lloyd Richards lectured on drama. The following year Karen became Mrs. Lloyd Richards.”
  • Margo (Bette Davis) says to Karen (Celeste Holm), “Please don’t play governess, Karen. I haven’t your unyielding good taste. I wish I could have gone to Radcliffe too, but father wouldn’t hear of it. He needed help behind the notions counter. I’m being rude now, aren’t I? Or should I say, ain’t I?”.
  • Lloyd (Hugh Marlowe) tells Karen, “That bitter cynicism of yours is something you’ve acquired since you left Radcliffe!” Karen replies, “The cynicism you refer to, I acquired the day I discovered I was different from little boys!”
• In the 1957 film comedy Don’t Go Near the Water, a very worldly member of the landed class on an isolated Pacific island speaks of sending his daughter to Radcliffe.
• In Electra Glide in Blue, the intellectual hippie girl is arrested at one point for knowing a murder investigation suspect referred to as a “Radcliffe hippie”.
• Rona Jaffe’s novel Class Reunion and Alice Adams’ novel Superior Women both deal with the lives of Radcliffe women in their college years and afterwards.
• Anton Meyer’s novel “The Last Convertible” has several Radcliffe characters.
• The 1970 movie Love Story, and the Erich Segal novel it was based on, feature Jenny Cavilleri (Ali MacGraw), a Radcliffe music student with whom wealthy Harvard student Oliver Barrett IV (Ryan O’Neal) falls in love.
• Brenda Patimkin of Philip Roth’s novel Goodbye, Columbus— and the film version— attends Radcliffe.
• Albert Innaurato’s 1976 play Gemini features a Radcliffe student named Judith Hastings who has a crush on the lead.
• The Woody Allen movie Manhattan includes a pedantic character played by Diane Keaton who attended Radcliffe. Additionally, Judy Davis’s character in Allen’s film Husbands and Wives claims she wrote her senior thesis at Radcliffe on Bauhaus architecture.
• The dating website OkCupid coined the adjective “Radcliffy” to describe characteristics stereotypically associated with women who go to Harvard University.
• In The Simpsons television episode “Monty Can’t Buy Me Love,” Homer says the Loch Ness monster has eluded everyone, including Peter Graves. Mr. Burns (a Yale University graduate) retorts: “Peter Graves couldn’t find ugly at a Radcliffe mixer”.
• One of the two main characters in the 80s Beauty and the Beast—Catherine Chandler played by Linda Hamilton—is a Radcliffe graduate. Throughout the series, “Radcliffe” is her boss’s nickname for her.
• The main character in Valley of the Dolls, Anne Welles, is a Radcliffe graduate.
• In an episode of ” The Simpsons”, Lisa Simpson is encouraged to throw an elementary school spelling bee in exchange for a scholarship at one of the Seven Sister Colleges. In a dream sequence she encounters personifications of each of the colleges, including Radcliffe.[3].
• In a 1963 Harvard Crimson article, Faye Levine wrote that Radcliffe College could be experienced in three flavors: peach, chocolate, and lime. The article, “The Three Flavors of Radcliffe,” can be found at [4]
• Splendor & Misery is a 1983 novel by Faye Levine that follows the college experience of Sarah Galbreath, a Radcliffe student in Cambridge in the early and mid 1960s.
• In the book The Prodigal Daughter by Jeffrey Archer, the protagonist Florentyna is a Radcliffe graduate, and remarks in one of her speeches at Harvard later that “This great university produced John Kennedy, who once said when receiving an honorary degree from Yale, ‘And now I have the best of both worlds, a Harvard education and a Yale degree.’ I, Mr. President, have the best of every world, a Radcliffe education and a Radcliffe degree.”
• “Dirty Water” by the Standells refers to Radcliffe’s “frustrated women” and hopes that “just once those doors weren’t locked”.
• A Small Circle of Friends is a film set at Harvard and Radcliffe in the Vietnam era. In it Karen Allen plays Jessica Bloom, a Radcliffe student caught up with two Harvard students in the activism and feminist awakening of the time.
• Love with a Harvard Accent is a 1962 novel written jointly by Bill Bayer and Nancy Jenkin under the pen name Leonie St. John. It tells the stories of three Radcliffe students coming of age along the bridge between the late 50s and early 1960s. The Harvard Crimson reviewed the book when it was published in an article entitled “Radcliffe’s New Catalog.”[5]>

• The Class, Erich Segal’s 1985 novel about the Harvard class of 1958, includes a character whose journal entry ostensibly typifies Harvard students’ intimidation by yet simultaneous respect for Radcliffe students. In the entry, the character states: “I mean, brains are okay for a girl in moderation, but the Radcliffe types are so goddamn intellectual–and competitive–that they sometimes make you forget why the Lord created women. Not that I have anything against Radcliffe. If ever I had a daughter, I’d want her to go there.”

• In United States of Tara, one of Tara’s alternate personalities is a stereotypically old school housewife named Alice who claims to have studied at the Radcliffe Institute,

See also

References

Further reading

• Baker, Liva (1976). I’m Radcliffe. Fly Me! The Seven Sisters and the Failure of Women’s Education. MacMillan Publishing.
• Howells, Dorothy Elia (1978). A Century to Celebrate: Radcliffe College, 1879–1979.
• Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women’s Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
• Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz (1999). The Passion of M. Carey Thomas. University of Illinois Press.
• Kendall, Elaine. Peculiar Institutions: An Informal History of the Seven Sister Colleges, G.P. Putnam and Sons, NY, 1975.
• McCord, David (1958). An Acre for Education: Being Notes on the History of Radcliffe College. Radclife College.
• Salie, Robert Douglas. The Harvard Annex Experiment in the Higher Education of Women: Separate but Equal? Ph.D. dissertation, Emory U. 1976. 399 pp.
• Schwager, Sally. “Harvard Women”: A History of the Founding of Radcliffe College. Ed.D. diss., Harvard University, 1982.
• Sollors, Werner; Titcomb, Caldwell; and Underwood, Thomas A., eds. (1993). Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe. 548 pp.
• Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. (2004). Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History. 337 pp.

Books about Radcliffe

• Dowst, Henry Payson; John Albert Seaford (1913). Radcliffe College. H. B. Humphrey Company.  Brief text; content is mostly illustrations by John Albert Seaford. Online page images and PDF at Google Books.

External links

• Radcliffe Institute For Advanced Study—Harvard University
• Her Two Lives The biography of the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study’s Founder by author Elaine Yaffe
• Radcliffe Crew
• The Radcliffe College Legacy (video)
• Radcliffe Day Video (award made to Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg [6]

Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace. Collective security is more ambitious than systems of alliance security or collective defense in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally, and to address a wide range of possible threats. While collective security is an idea with a long history, its implementation in practice has proved problematic. Several prerequisites have to be met for it to have a chance of working.

History

Early mentions

Collective security is one of the most promising approaches for peace and a valuable device for power management on an international scale. Cardinal Richelieu proposed a scheme for collective security in 1629, which was partially reflected in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. In the eighteenth century many proposals were made for collective security arrangements, especially in Europe.

The concept of a peaceful community of nations was outlined in 1795 in Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch. Kant outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states. However, he argues for the establishment of a peaceful world community not in a sense that there be a global government but in the hope that each state would declare itself as a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings. His key argument is that a union of free states would promote peaceful society worldwide: therefore, in his view, there can be a perpetual peace shaped by the international community rather than by a world government.

According to the Ahmadiyya movement in Islam, collective security was prescribed by the teachings of the Quran. Addressing at Capitol Hill, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the fifth Caliph of the movement, explaining verse 9 of chapter 49 of the Quran, said:

[The Quran] teaches that when two nations are in dispute and this leads to war, then other governments should strongly counsel them towards dialogue and diplomacy so that they can come to an agreement and reconciliation on a basis of a negotiated settlement. If, however, one of the parties does not accept the terms of agreement and wages war, then other countries should unite together and stop that aggressor. When the aggressive nation is defeated and agrees to mutual negotiation, then all parties should work towards an agreement that leads to long-standing peace and reconciliation.

Bahá’u’lláh (1817–1892), the founder of the Bahá’í Faith, prescribed collective security as a means to establish world peace in his writings during the 19th century:

The time must come when the imperative necessity for the holding of a vast, an all-embracing assemblage of men will be universally realized. The rulers and kings of the earth must needs attend it, and, participating in its deliberations, must consider such ways and means as will lay the foundations of the world’s Great Peace amongst men. Such a peace demandeth that the Great Powers should resolve, for the sake of the tranquility of the peoples of the earth, to be fully reconciled among themselves. Should any king take up arms against another, all should unitedly arise and prevent him. If this be done, the nations of the world will no longer require any armaments, except for the purpose of preserving the security of their realms and of maintaining internal order within their territories. This will ensure the peace and composure of every people, government and nation.

International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. This period also saw the development of international law with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.

The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of parliament, in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU’s structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.

At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialized countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths.

By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as “the war to end all wars”, and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organization whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations.

Collective security in the League of Nations

After World War I, the first large scale attempt to provide collective security in modern times was the establishment of the League of Nations in 1919–20. The provisions of the League of Nations Covenant represented a weak system for decision-making and for collective action. An example of the failure of the League of Nations’ collective security is the Manchurian Crisis, when Japan occupied part of China (which was a League member). After the invasion, members of the League passed a resolution calling for Japan to withdraw or face severe penalties. Given that every nation on the League of Nations council had veto power, Japan promptly vetoed the resolution, severely limiting the LN’s ability to respond. After one year of deliberation, the League passed a resolution condemning the invasion without committing the League’s members to any action against it. The Japanese replied by quitting the League.

A similar process occurred in 1935, when Italy invaded Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Sanctions were passed, but Italy would have vetoed any stronger resolution. Additionally, Britain and France sought to court Italy’s government as a potential deterrent to Hitler, given that Mussolini was not yet in what would become the Axis alliance of World War II. Thus, neither enforced any serious sanctions against the Italian government. Additionally, in this case and with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the absence of the USA from the League of Nations deprived the LN of another major power that could have used economic leverage against either of the aggressor states. Inaction by the League subjected it to criticisms that it was weak and concerned more with European issues (most leading members were European), and did not deter Hitler from his plans to dominate Europe. The Ethiopian monarch Emperor Haile Selassie I continued to support collective security though, having assessed that impotence lay not in the principle but in its covenantors’ commitment to honor its tenets.

One active and articulate exponent of collective security during the immediate pre-war years was the Soviet foreign minister Maxim Litvinov. However, there are grounds for doubt about the depth of Soviet commitment to this principle, as well as that of Western powers. After the Munich Agreement in September 1938 and the passivity of outside powers in the face of German occupation of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 it was shown that the Western Powers were not prepared to engage in collective security against aggression by the Axis Powers together with the Soviet Union, Soviet foreign policy was revised and Litvinov was replaced as foreign minister in early May 1939, in order to facilitate the negotiations that led to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, signed by Litvinov’s successor, Vyacheslav Molotov, on August 23 of that year. The war in Europe broke out a week later, with the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939.

Recent events

The 1945 United Nations Charter, although containing stronger provisions for decision-making and collective military action than those of the League of Nations Covenant, does not represent a complete system of collective security, but rather a balance between collective action on the one hand and continued operation of the states system (including the continued special roles of great powers) on the other.

Cited examples of the limitations of collective security include the Falklands War. When Argentina invaded the islands, which are overseas territories of the United Kingdom, many UN members stayed out of the issue, as it did not directly concern them. There was also a controversy about the United States’ role in that conflict, due to their obligations as an Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the “Rio Pact”) member. However, many politicians who view the system as having faults also believe it remains a useful tool for keeping international peace.

The role of the UN and collective security in general is evolving, given the rise of internal state conflicts. Since the end of WWII, there have been 111 military conflicts worldwide, but only 9 of these have involved two or more states going to war with one another. The remainder have either been internal civil wars or civil wars where other nations intervened in some manner. This means that collective security may have to evolve towards providing a means to ensure stability and a fair international resolution to those internal conflicts. Whether this will involve more powerful peacekeeping forces, or a larger role for the UN diplomatically, will likely be judged on a case-by-case basis.

Theory

Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement in which all states cooperate collectively to provide security for all by the actions of all against any states within the groups which might challenge the existing order by using force. This contrasts with self-help strategies of engaging in war for purely immediate national interest. While collective security is possible, several prerequisites have to be met for it to work.

Sovereign nations eager to maintain the status quo, willingly cooperate, accepting a degree of vulnerability and in some cases of minor nations, also accede to the interests of the chief contributing nations organising the collective security. Collective Security is achieved by setting up an international cooperative organisation, under the auspices of international law and this gives rise to a form of international collective governance, albeit limited in scope and effectiveness. The collective security organisation then becomes an arena for diplomacy, balance of power and exercise of soft power. The use of hard power by states, unless legitimised by the Collective Security organisation, is considered illegitimate, reprehensible and needing remediation of some kind. The collective security organisation not only gives cheaper security, but also may be the only practicable means of security for smaller nations against more powerful threatening neighbours without the need of joining the camp of the nations balancing their neighbours.

The concept of “collective security” forwarded by men such as Michael Joseph Savage, Martin Wight, Immanuel Kant, and Woodrow Wilson, are deemed to apply interests in security in a broad manner, to “avoid grouping powers into opposing camps, and refusing to draw dividing lines that would leave anyone out.” The term “collective security” has also been cited as a principle of the United Nations, and the League of Nations before that. By employing a system of collective security, the UN hopes to dissuade any member state from acting in a manner likely to threaten peace, thereby avoiding any conflict.

Collective security selectively incorporates the concept of both balance of power and global government. Thus it is important to know and distinguish these two concepts. Balance of power between states opts for decentralization of power. States are separate actors who do not subordinate their autonomy or sovereignty to a central. Thus, “singly or in combinations reflecting the coincidence of interests, States seek to influence the pattern of power distribution and to determine their own places within that pattern.” The expectation of order and peace comes from the belief that competing powers will somehow balance and thereby cancel each other out to produce “deterrence through equilibration.”

On the flip side, the concept of global government is about centralization. Global government is a centralized institutional system that possesses the power use of force like a well established sovereign nation state. This concept strips states of their “standing as centers of power and policy, where issues of war and peace are concerned,” and superimposing on them “an institution possessed of the authority and capability to maintain, by unchallengeable force so far as may be necessary, the order and stability of a global community.” Collective security selectively incorporates both of this concepts which can broil down to a phrase: “order without government.”

Basic assumptions

Organski (1960) lists five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security:

• In an armed conflict, member nation-states will be able to agree on which nation is the aggressor.
• All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the aggression, irrespective of its source or origin.
• All member nation-states have identical freedom of action and ability to join in proceedings against the aggressor.
• The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective security will be adequate and sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.
• In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective security coalition, the aggressor nation will modify its policies, or if unwilling to do so, will be defeated.

Prerequisites

Morgenthau (1948) states that three prerequisites must be met for collective security to successfully prevent war:

• The collective security system must be able to assemble military force in strength greatly in excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s) thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from attempting to change the world order defended by the collective security system.
• Those nations, whose combined strength would be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about the security of the world order that the collective is defending.
• Nations must be willing to subordinate their conflicting interests to the common good defined in terms of the common defense of all member-states.

Collective defense

Collective defense is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member state if it is attacked by another state outside the organization. NATO is the best known collective defense organization; its famous Article 5 calls on (but does not fully commit) member states to assist another member under attack. This article was invoked after the September 11 attacks on the United States, after which other NATO members provided assistance to the US War on Terror in Afghanistan.

Collective defense has its roots in multiparty alliances and entails benefits as well as risks. On the one hand, by combining and pooling resources, it can reduce any single state’s cost of providing fully for its security. Smaller members of NATO, for example, have leeway to invest a greater proportion of their budget on non-military priorities, such as education or health, since they can count on other members to come to their defense, if needed.

On the other hand, collective defense also involves risky commitments. Member states can become embroiled in costly wars benefiting neither the direct victim nor the aggressor. In World War I, countries in the collective defense arrangement known as the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) were pulled into war quickly when Russia started full mobilization against Austria-Hungary, whose ally Germany subsequently declared war on Russia.

See also

• List of military alliances
• World War I
• World War II
• Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941
• Self-defence in international law
• World government

References

Bibliography

• Beer, Francis A., ed. (1970). Alliances: Latent War Communities in the Contemporary World. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. 
• Bourquin, Maurice (1936). Collective Security, A record of the Seventh and Eighth International Studies Conference. Paris: International Institute. 
• Claude Jr., Inis L. (2006). Collective Security as an Approach to Peace in: Classic Readings and Contemporary Debates in International Relations ed. Donald M. Goldstein, Phil Williams, & Jay M. Shafritz. Belmont CA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 289–302. 
• Ghosh, Peu (2009). International Relations (Eastern Economy ed.). New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Ltd. p. 389. ISBN 978-81-203-3875-3. Retrieved 15 October 2010. 
• Lowe, Vaughan, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum, The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, paperback, 794 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0.
• Organski, A.F.K. (1958). World Politics. Borzoi books on International Politics (1 ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 461. Retrieved 15 October 2010. 
• Roberts, Adam and Dominik Zaum, Selective Security: War and the United Nations Security Council since 1945 (Adelphi Paper no. 395 of International Institute for Strategic Studies, London), Abingdon: Routledge, 2008, 93 pp. ISBN 978-0-415-47472-6.
• Sharp, Alan (2013). Collective Security. Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG). 
• Wight, Martin (1977). Systems of States ed. Hedley Bull. London: Leicester University Press. p. 49. 

External links

• de Wet, Erika, Wood, Michael. Collective Security, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
• President Carter’s Nobel Lecture

The gravitational constant, approximately 6989667400000000000♠6.674×10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg² and denoted by letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation(s) of gravitational force between two bodies. It usually appears in Sir Isaac Newton’s law of universal gravitation, and in Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. It is also known as the universal gravitational constant, Newton’s constant, and colloquially as Big G. It should not be confused with “small g” (g), which is the local gravitational field of the Earth (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration).

Laws and constants

According to the law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses (m₁ and m₂), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, (inverse-square law) between them:

The constant of proportionality, G, is the gravitational constant.

The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy. In SI units, the 2014 CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant (with standard uncertainty in parentheses) is:

with relative standard uncertainty 6995470000000000000♠4.7×10⁻⁵.

Dimensions, units, and magnitude

The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant in the equation above—length cubed, divided by mass, and by time squared (in SI units, meters cubed per kilogram per second squared)—are those needed to balance the units of measurements in gravitational equations. However, these dimensions have fundamental significance in terms of Planck units; when expressed in SI units, the gravitational constant is dimensionally and numerically equal to the cube of the Planck length divided by the product of the Planck mass and the square of Planck time.

In natural units, of which Planck units are a common example, G and other physical constants such as c (the speed of light) may be set equal to 1.

In many secondary school texts, the dimensions of G are derived from force in order to assist student comprehension:

In cgs, G can be written as:

Applying Kepler’s 3rd law, in Newtonian form, to the Earth’s orbit:

,

where distance is measured in astronomical units (AU), time in years, and mass in solar masses ().

In other fields of astrophysics, where distances are measured in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometers per second (km/s) and masses again in solar units (), it is useful to express G as:

G can also be given as:

Given the fact that the period P of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys

where V is the volume inside the radius of the orbit, we see that

This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.

The gravitational force is extremely weak compared with other fundamental forces. For example, the gravitational force between an electron and proton one meter apart is approximately 6933099999999999999♠10⁻⁶⁷ N, whereas the electromagnetic force between the same two particles is approximately 6972100000000000000♠10⁻²⁸ N. Both these forces are weak when compared with the forces we are able to experience directly, but the electromagnetic force in this example is some 39 orders of magnitude (i.e. 10³⁹) greater than the force of gravity—roughly the same ratio as the mass of the Sun compared to a microgram.

History of measurement

The gravitational constant appears in Newton’s law of universal gravitation, but it was not measured until seventy-one years after Newton’s death by Henry Cavendish with his Cavendish experiment, performed in 1798 (Philosophical Transactions 1798). Cavendish measured G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell. He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam’s oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. Cavendish’s aim was not actually to measure the gravitational constant, but rather to measure the Earth’s density relative to water, through the precise knowledge of the gravitational interaction. In retrospect, the density that Cavendish calculated implies a value for G of 6989675400000000000♠6.754×10⁻¹¹ m³ kg⁻¹ s⁻².

The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment. G is quite difficult to measure, as gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics. Published values of G have varied rather broadly, and some recent measurements of high precision are, in fact, mutually exclusive. This led to the 2010 CODATA value by NIST having 20% increased uncertainty than in 2006. For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to less than half the 2010 value.

In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a new measurement of the gravitational constant by atom interferometry, reporting a value of G = 6989669300000000000♠6.693(34)×10⁻¹¹ m³ kg⁻¹ s⁻². An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of G = 6989667191000000000♠6.67191(99)×10⁻¹¹ m³ kg⁻¹ s⁻².

A 2015 study of all previous measurements of G led to the discovery that most of the mutually exclusive values can be explained by a periodic variation. This variation has a period of 5.9 years, similar to one observed in length of day (LOD) measurements, hinting at a common physical cause which is not necessarily a variation in G. The observed behaviour can be confirmed by repeated measurements over the next half decade or so. Combined with new methods of measuring G, such as quantum interferometry, this could help establish a more precise value of G.

Under the assumption that the physics of type Ia supernovae are universal, analysis of observations of 580 type Ia supernovae has shown that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years.

The GM product

The quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or the Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter and is denoted . Depending on the body concerned, it may also be called the geocentric or heliocentric gravitational constant, among other names.

This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. Also, for celestial bodies such as the Earth and the Sun, the value of the product GM is known much more accurately than each factor independently. Indeed, the limited accuracy available for G limits the accuracy of scientific determination of such masses in the first place.

For Earth, using as the symbol for the mass of the Earth, we have

For Sun, we have

Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the unit of solar mass rather than the standard SI unit kilogram. In this case we use the Gaussian gravitational constant k, where

and

is the astronomical unit;

is the mean solar day;

is the solar mass.

If instead of mean solar day we use the sidereal year as our time unit, the value of ks is very close to 2π (k = 7000628315000000000♠6.28315).

The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton’s law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.

See also

Notes

References

External links

• Newtonian constant of gravitation G at the National Institute of Standards and Technology References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
• The Controversy over Newton’s Gravitational Constant — additional commentary on measurement problems

Hell houses are haunted attractions typically run by Christian churches or parachurch organizations. These depict real-life situations, sin, the torments of the damned in Hell, and usually conclude with a depiction of Heaven. They are most typically operated in the days preceding Halloween.

A hell house, like a conventional haunted-house attraction, is a space set aside for actors to frighten patrons with gruesome exhibits and scenes, presented as a series of short vignettes with a narrated guide. Unlike haunted houses, hell houses focus on real-life situations and the effects of sin or the fate of unrepentant sinners in the afterlife.

The exhibits at a hell house often have a theme focusing on issues of concern to the whole public. Hell houses frequently feature exhibits depicting fundamentalist Christian interpretations of sin and its consequences. Common examples include abortion, suicide, use of alcoholic beverages and other recreational drugs, adultery, occultism, and Satanic ritual abuse. Other hell houses focus on the theme of the seven deadly sins. Hell houses typically emphasize the belief that those who do not repent of their sins and choose to follow Christ are condemned to Hell.

History

The earliest hell house is thought to been created by Trinity Assembly of God in Cedar Hill, but it was first popularized by Jerry Falwell in the late 1970s. Similar events began in several regions during that period. More recently, the concept has been promoted and adapted by Keenan Roberts, originally of Roswell, New Mexico, who started a hell house in Arvada, Colorado in 1995. Since that time, hell houses have become a regular fixture of the Halloween season in parts of the United States. Roberts remains active in the hell house ministry by providing kits and directions to enable churches to perform their own attractions. He is now the senior pastor of Destiny Church of the Assemblies of God, where Hell House is usually performed each year during the month of October.

In October 2000, documentary filmmaker George Ratliff filmed a production of a hell house in Cedar Hill, Texas from scripting to the final night of the production. The resulting documentary, Hell House, has inspired numerous live plays and hell-house performances, including one based on Pastor Roberts’ production, which played for a month during the 2006 Halloween season in an off-Broadway production in Brooklyn, New York by Les Freres Corbusier.

References

Further reading

• Nixon, Elisabeth Ann (2006) Playing devil’s advocate on the path to heaven: evangelical hell houses and the play of politics, fear and faith (PhD dissertation).

See also

• Heaven’s Gates, Hell’s Flames

External links

• Judgement House

The Big Lead is a blog owned by USA Today that mainly covers sports but also touches on everything from politics to pop culture. It was started in February 2006 by Jason McIntyre and college friend David Lessa. McIntyre, a former sportswriter, enlisted the help of fellow bloggers Stephen Douglas (username Cousins of Ron Mexico), Tyler Duffy (tyduffy), Jason Lisk, and Tim Ryan (The Sports Hernia) in 2008 and 2009 to help contribute and added video editor Michael Shamburger in 2011. Currently, the site averages over 8 million monthly page views.

USA Today bought original owner Fantasy Sports Ventures in January 2012.

Format and content

The site is usually updated 10 to 15 times a day between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. est, with each post receiving its own title and space for registered readers to post comments.Days usually begin with the morning “Roundup”, which links to varying news stories of interest in paragraph form at the top, and mainly links to different sports related stories at the bottom. The Roundup is usually accompanied by a picture of an attractive model or actress as well as relevant or humorous YouTube clips. Recaps of the previous nights games also receive a common post heading. Basketball recaps are entitled “Ballin'”, baseball game recaps are called “Yardwork”, football previews are called “Pigsplosion”, and soccer posts are usually called “The Onion Bag”. Every year the site stages what it calls a “Culture Tournament”. 64 different sports figures, celebrities, or other relevant items (example: Michael Phelps’ Bong Hit) are seeded in an NCAA basketball tournament style bracket. Readers are allowed to vote one time for each match up until a winner is decided. In 2008, ESPN sideline reporter Erin Andrews beat out actress/singer Jessica Simpson. In the 2009 version, Megan Fox was crowned champion narrowly over Andrews.

Gaining notoriety

The site first gained notoriety by obtaining interviews with syndicated sportswriter and ESPN Poker commentator Norman Chad and Kansas City Star and FoxSports.com columnist Jason Whitlock. The interview with Whitlock generated controversy when he proceeded to trash his then ESPN colleagues Scoop Jackson and Mike Lupica. This ended Whitlock’s association with the network.

The Colin Cowherd Incident

On April 5, 2007, ESPN Radio personality Colin Cowherd instructed the listeners of his radio show to flood The Big Lead with traffic. The surge in activity overloaded the servers, knocking the site out of commission for about 48 hours. The attack appeared to be unprovoked, with Cowherd saying “wouldn’t it be great if we could blow up a website?”. His actions drew criticism from the blogosphere, as well as ESPN.com’s ombudsman Le Anne Schreiber, who called his actions “immature, irresponsible, arrogant, malicious, destructive and dumb.” However, since such actions weren’t forbidden by ESPN at that time, he was not disciplined.

References

External links

• thebiglead.com
• cousinsofronmexico.blogspot.com
• thesportshernia.com
• tylerduffy.com

William Carey University is a private Christian liberal arts college located in Hattiesburg, Mississippi in the United States, affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention and the Mississippi Baptist Convention. The main campus is located in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, with a second campus located in the Tradition community near Gulfport, Mississippi and Biloxi, Mississippi.

William Carey University was founded by W. I. Thames in 1892 as Pearl River Boarding School in Poplarville, Mississippi. A disastrous fire destroyed the school in 1905, and in 1906, with the backing of a group of New Orleans businessmen, Thames re-opened the school in Hattiesburg as South Mississippi College. Another fire destroyed the young institution, forcing it to close. In 1911, W. S. F. Tatum acquired the property and offered it as a gift to the Baptists, and the school re-opened as Mississippi Woman’s College. In 1953, the Mississippi Baptist Convention voted to move the college into coeducational status, which necessitated a new name for the institution. In 1954, the board of trustees selected the name of William Carey College in honor of William Carey, the eighteenth century English cobbler-linguist whose decades of missionary activity in India earned him international recognition as the “Father of Modern Missions.” The school changed to university status in 2006.

The university offers baccalaureate degrees in the areas of arts and letters, education, natural and behavioral sciences, business, religion, music, and nursing. The university also offers M.B.A, M.Ed., M.S. in psychology, M.S. in Health Information Systems, and an M.S.N. degree, as well as a specialist degree in elementary education and a Ph.D. in education administration. In 2009, William Carey opened the College of Osteopathic Medicine, and 2010, welcomed its first class of 110 students. In 2012, Carey added a Ph.D. program in nursing. Three trimesters of eleven weeks each comprise the academic year. Two summer sessions, a J-term, and a May Term session are also offered.

History

The institution that is now William Carey University had its earliest origins in Poplarville, Mississippi, when the noted educator W. I. Thames opened Pearl River Boarding School in 1892. As did many institutions of its day, Pearl River Boarding School offered “elementary, preparatory, and some college work.” A disastrous fire destroyed the school in 1905, and Professor Thames moved to Hattiesburg where, with the backing of a group of New Orleans businessmen, he opened South Mississippi College in 1906. After a fire destroyed this campus, W.S.F. Tatum acquired the property and in 1911, opened the school as Mississippi Woman’s College. In 1954, the Board of Trustees changed its name to William Carey College when the college became coeducational. The school is named for the 18th century English cobbler-linguist whose decades of missionary activity in India earned him international recognition as the “Father of Modern Protestant Missions.” William Carey D.D. (1761-1834.)

In 1939, the school, which was then called the Mississippi Woman’s College, took third place in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition, and it remains the only women’s college to ever place in that competition.

In 1968 William Carey entered a new era when it announced a merger with the prestigious Mather School of Nursing in New Orleans.

In 1976, the college purchased the Gulf Coast Military Academy campus in Gulfport. The beachfront property was devastated by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, and classes were held in other facilities until the William Carey University-Tradition Campus opened in August 2009. Located off Highway 67 in Biloxi, it is the center of the 4,800-acre Tradition Planned Community.

On August 14, 2006, William Carey University celebrated its Centennial. This day also marked the transition of William Carey College to William Carey University.

Accreditation

William Carey University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award bachelor’s, master’s, specialist specialist and doctoral degrees.

The William Carey University College of Osteopathic Medicine is the 29th osteopathic medical school in the United States. Upon the graduation of its inaugural class in 2014, the school was fully accredited by the American Osteopathic Association’s Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation.

WCU College of Osteopathic Medicine

On October 23, 2007, the Board of Trustees at William Carey University (WCU) unanimously voted to authorize Dr. Tommy King, president, to employ a dean for the College of Osteopathic Medicine (COM). The rationale was to open the COM to address the severe shortage of physicians in Mississippi and surrounding states and to impact the healthcare of rural Mississippians.

In January 2008, Michael K. Murphy, D.O., was employed to aid in accomplishing this goal. On March 3, 2008, the College was officially established. Press conferences were held in Jackson at the Mississippi Baptist Convention Building and on the Hattiesburg campus of WCU on March 7, 2008. The President announced the establishment of the College and introduced Dr. Murphy, the founding dean. William Carey University College of Osteopathic Medicine was awarded provisional accreditation by the American Osteopathic Association’s Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation at its meeting September 12–13, 2009. On September 13, 2009, William Carey University College of Osteopathic Medicine was awarded provisional accreditation status by the Council on Osteopathic College Accreditation (COCA). In August 2010, the university welcomed its inaugural class of 110 medical students.

The William Carey University College of Osteopathic Medicine is the state’s second medical school and the first in the region to focus on osteopathic medicine. The medical college graduated its first class in 2014 and a second class in 2015.

School of Music and Ministry Studies

The Winters School of Music is an accredited institutional member of the National Association of Schools of Music. The music therapy program is accredited by the American Music Therapy Association.

Department of Theatre & Communication and Carey Dinner Theatre

William Carey University’s Department of Theatre & Communication began in 1915 by Kate Downs P’Pool, and has garnered a reputation for outstanding work. Since 1994, the department has become actively involved in the Kennedy Center American College Theater Festival. In 2001, William Carey’s production of And David Danced was selected for presentation at the National Kennedy Center/American College Theatre Festival in Washington, D.C. In the same year, the department was honored with the Mississippi Governor’s Award for Excellence in the Arts. The department has also twice taken faculty and students to Nairobi, Kenya, to produce the musical Smoke on the Mountain. The department produces three productions per year, normally a drama, a children’s theatre piece, and a comedy or musical. Their venue is the Joe and Virginia Tatum Theatre.

Carey Dinner Theatre began in 1974 as the “Carey Summer Showcase” under the management of Obra Quave. The longest-running dinner theatre in the state of Mississippi (30+ years), CDT brings professional summer theatre to WCU and the surrounding community. Two CDT alumni (Phillip Fortenberry and Keith Thompson) have gone onto professional Broadway music careers. CDT produces two shows per summer, normally light-hearted comedies or musicals.

School of Nursing

The Joseph and Nancy Fail School of Nursing is accredited by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education, by the board of trustees, Institutions of Higher Learning of the State of Mississippi, and approved in New Orleans by the Louisiana State Board of Nursing.

Campus life

The Student Government Association, SGA, is the head of all campus organizations. The SGA hosts Welcome Week, Homecoming Week (along with the Alumni office), and various activities throughout the year. In addition to activities, the SGA works as a liaison between the students and administration.

William Carey University operates in accordance with its Baptist affiliation and has many programs for its 4000 students. CareyBSU offers Bible studies, ministry to the surrounding area and apartments, mission opportunities, and “Priority Lunch.” It also offers CampusLink which is a worship service time.

The university is served by a newspaper, The Cobbler, which publishes once a month and alternates between a print and online edition. The Cobbler has been in existence since the 1950s; prior to the name change to WCU, it was known as The Scissors and operated from the 1920s until the 1950s.

The name of the yearbook is The Crusader (it was known as The Pine Burr in the MWC days). There is also a literary magazine, The Indigo and an alumni magazine, Carey.

Other campus organizations are: African-American Culture Society, Association of Campus Presidents (President’s Round Table, Association of Church Musicians Carey Carillon, Carey Chorale, Carey Connection, Carey Jitsu, Carey Scholars, Carpenter’s Wood, Chapel Choir, Cheerleading, Church Related Vocations, Crusader for Life, Diamond Girls, Fellowship of Christian Athletes, Instrumental Chamber Ensemble, International Student Organization, Music Educators National Conference, Panhellenic Council, Piano Ensemble, Pine Belt Reading Council, Serampore Players, Society for Advancement of Management, Speech and Debate (Joe Roberts Forensics Society), Student Music Therapy Association, and Student Nurses Association

Greek life

Three Christian-oriented organizations exist on campus. Gamma Chi is one sorority focused on sisterhood and service. Gamma Chi’s colors are red, black, and white and the mascot is a panda. Pi Omega is a social and service sorority. Kappa Tau Xi is a social and service fraternity.

Athletics

William Carey teams are known as the Crusaders. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), competing in the Southern States Athletic Conference (SSAC). The Crusaders formerly competed in the Gulf Coast Athletic Conference (GCAC). Men’s sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, tennis and track & field; while women’s sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, tennis and track & field.

Most of the teams are nationally ranked within the N.A.I.A. structure and typically move on to the conference play-offs and the national championship rounds. The athletic department maintains its own website separate from the main university site. The Student Services administration also organizes various indoor and outdoor sports and games through its intramural program.

Notable alumni

• Dan Jennings (Class of 1984), manager of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.
• Ezell Lee (Class of ?), Democratic and, later, Republican politician in the Mississippi House of Representatives and Mississippi Senate.
• Chris McDaniel (Class of 1994), attorney and Republican politician in the Mississippi Senate since 2008.
• Michael Parker (Class of 1978), Democratic and, later, Republican politician in the U.S. House of Representatives and former Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) under President George W. Bush.
• Argile Smith (Class of 1977), incoming interim president of Louisiana College in Pineville, Louisiana
• Larkin I. Smith (Class of ?), former police chief, county sheriff, and Republican politician in the U.S. House of Representatives from January 1989 until his untimely death in August of the same year.
• John Stephenson (Class of ?), retired Major League Baseball player who was a catcher from 1964-1973.

References

External links

• Official website
• Official athletics website
• Center for Study of the Life and Work of William Carey, D.D.
• Baptist Student Union of William Carey University
• WCU College of Osteopathic Medicine Student Website